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© The Author(s) 2020. This artist-led research project involved 10 visual artists producing 10 ambient portraits and a portrait average of a locally familiar Sitter, and 10 ambient portraits and a portrait average of a less locally familiar Sitter. All were then assessed for likeness by more than 150 members of the general public attending an exhibition during Australia’s 2018 National Science Week. The results of this study are that portrait averages can be highly shape accurate and tend to be seen as a good likeness by all viewers. However, the portrait average is not necessarily the best likeness. Extending and validating our previous findings regarding the relationship of likeness, familiarity, and shape accuracy (as measured using geometric morphometrics) in portraiture, unfamiliar viewers favouring shape accurate depictions of a Sitter attained statistical significance. Familiar viewers, however, although also tending to view shape accurate depictions a good to very good likeness, were shown to have a stronger preference for portraits that exaggerate a Sitter’s facial distinctiveness, including an exaggeration of their head pose, providing such exaggerations are in approximate proportional agreement.

There is considerable evidence that the babirusa of Sulawesi and its neighbouring islands has long attracted human attention. This is probably in part due to the male babirusa appearing as a bizarre compound of two familiar ungulates (babi = 'pig', rusa = 'deer') in that the male's upper canines resemble deer antlers. In October 2014, Aubert et al. announced in Nature that a cave art depiction in Leang Timpuseng, Maros, interpreted by the authors to depict a female babirusa, was created at least 35,400 years ago and is therefore of comparable antiquity to the oldest recorded Late Pleistocene cave art of Europe. Using geometric morphometrics, we compare the Leang Timpuseng cave art to profile photographs and illustrations depicting the babirusa and the endemic Sulawesi warty pig, including historical illustrations produced by Europeans during the period ~AD 1740-1860. Our analysis indicates that geometric morphometrics can be applied to meaningfully analyse naturalistic cave art. However, because of the relatively small sample size and that the male babirusa dominates both historical and contemporary illustrations, the results are only indicative. These are that the Leang Timpuseng cave art is more likely to be depicting a female, and that this depiction differs markedly from historical and contemporary illustrations in that it shows a morphologically female suid as independently active. With regards to which animal is depicted, the results suggest the Leang Timpuseng cave art is possibly either an illustration of a female hairy/golden babirusa, which has not yet been proven to have a range extending to Sulawesi, or the extinct Babyrousa bolabatuensis, which is part of the existing Sulawesi fossil record and has been noted to be similar in tooth size to the hairy/golden babirusa.

There is considerable evidence that the babirusa of Sulawesi and its neighbouring islands has long attracted human attention. This is probably in part due to the male babirusa appearing as a bizarre compound of two familiar ungulates (babi = 'pig', rusa = 'deer') in that the male's upper canines resemble deer antlers. In October 2014, Aubert et al. announced in Nature that a cave art depiction in Leang Timpuseng, Maros, interpreted by the authors to depict a female babirusa, was created at least 35,400 years ago and is therefore of comparable antiquity to the oldest recorded Late Pleistocene cave art of Europe. Using geometric morphometrics, we compare the Leang Timpuseng cave art to profile photographs and illustrations depicting the babirusa and the endemic Sulawesi warty pig, including historical illustrations produced by Europeans during the period ~AD 1740-1860. Our analysis indicates that geometric morphometrics can be applied to meaningfully analyse naturalistic cave art. However, because of the relatively small sample size and that the male babirusa dominates both historical and contemporary illustrations, the results are only indicative. These are that the Leang Timpuseng cave art is more likely to be depicting a female, and that this depiction differs markedly from historical and contemporary illustrations in that it shows a morphologically female suid as independently active. With regards to which animal is depicted, the results suggest the Leang Timpuseng cave art is possibly either an illustration of a female hairy/golden babirusa, which has not yet been proven to have a range extending to Sulawesi, or the extinct Babyrousa bolabatuensis, which is part of the existing Sulawesi fossil record and has been noted to be similar in tooth size to the hairy/golden babirusa.

An artist-led exploration of portrait accuracy and likeness involved 12 Artists producing 12 portraits referencing a life-size 3D print of the same Sitter. The works were assessed during a public exhibition, and the resulting likeness assessments were compared to portrait accuracy as measured using geometric morphometrics (statistical shape analysis). Our results are that, independently of the assessors' prior familiarity with the Sitter's face, the likeness judgements tended to be higher for less morphologically accurate portraits. The two highest rated were the portrait that most exaggerated the Sitter's distinctive features, and a portrait that was a more accurate (but not the most accurate) depiction. In keeping with research showing photograph likeness assessments involve recognition, we found familiar assessors rated the two highest ranked portraits even higher than those with some or no familiarity. In contrast, those lacking prior familiarity with the Sitter's face showed greater favour for the portrait with the highest morphological accuracy, and therefore most likely engaged in face-matching with the exhibited 3D print. Furthermore, our research indicates that abstraction in portraiture may not enhance likeness, and we found that when our 12 highly diverse portraits were statistically averaged, this resulted in a portrait that is more morphologically accurate than any of the individual artworks comprising the average.

Creating a facial appearance for individuals from the distant past is often highly problematic, even when verified methods are used. This is especially so in the case of non-European individuals, as the reference populations used to estimate the face tend to be heavily biased towards the average facial variation of recent people of European descent. To evaluate the problem, a facial approximation of a young woman from the Late Pleistocene rockshelter of Tham Lod in north-western Thailand was compared against the average facial variation of datasets from recent populations. The analysis indicated that the Tham Lod facial approximation was neither overtly recent in facial morphology, nor overtly European. The case is of particular interest as the Tham Lod individual probably belonged to a population ancestral to extant Australo-Melanesian peoples.

Creating a facial appearance for individuals from the distant past is often highly problematic, even when verified methods are used. This is especially so in the case of non-European individuals, as the reference populations used to estimate the face tend to be heavily biased towards the average facial variation of recent people of European descent. To evaluate the problem, a facial approximation of a young woman from the Late Pleistocene rockshelter of Tham Lod in north-western Thailand was compared against the average facial variation of datasets from recent populations. The analysis indicated that the Tham Lod facial approximation was neither overtly recent in facial morphology, nor overtly European. The case is of particular interest as the Tham Lod individual probably belonged to a population ancestral to extant Australo-Melanesian peoples.

In August 2011, a 2D facial approximation was undertaken of remains discovered in Australia's Belanglo State Forrest; in October 2015, the young woman was identified. Referencing three photographs of the young woman as she appeared in life and a database of 64 sex, age, head pose and population matched images, the facial approximation is evaluated for relative shape accuracy through the application of geometric morphometrics. The results are that the facial approximation is significantly similar to the images of the young woman in facial morphology (p = 0.002) when most of the variance due to depicted head pose is removed from the analyses. The geometric morphometric analyses, however, also highlight the facial approximation's face and feature discrepancies, some of which would have likely disrupted familiar face recognition. Although predominantly verified methods were applied in 2011, they are limited in their predictive accuracy, not every feature of the face has a verified method to apply, and practitioner errors as well as photographic distortions are apparent. Furthermore, an assumption that the verified methods require inter-feature agreement (in this instance eye spacing and mouth width) was proved to be false. Overall this study shows that it is possible to assess the morphological accuracy of a forensic facial approximation when a number of antemortem images are available, though the influence of photographic distortion within 2D photographs will always preclude a precise metric assessment.

In August 2011, a 2D facial approximation was undertaken of remains discovered in Australia's Belanglo State Forrest; in October 2015, the young woman was identified. Referencing three photographs of the young woman as she appeared in life and a database of 64 sex, age, head pose and population matched images, the facial approximation is evaluated for relative shape accuracy through the application of geometric morphometrics. The results are that the facial approximation is significantly similar to the images of the young woman in facial morphology (p = 0.002) when most of the variance due to depicted head pose is removed from the analyses. The geometric morphometric analyses, however, also highlight the facial approximation's face and feature discrepancies, some of which would have likely disrupted familiar face recognition. Although predominantly verified methods were applied in 2011, they are limited in their predictive accuracy, not every feature of the face has a verified method to apply, and practitioner errors as well as photographic distortions are apparent. Furthermore, an assumption that the verified methods require inter-feature agreement (in this instance eye spacing and mouth width) was proved to be false. Overall this study shows that it is possible to assess the morphological accuracy of a forensic facial approximation when a number of antemortem images are available, though the influence of photographic distortion within 2D photographs will always preclude a precise metric assessment.

Museum displays of faces derived from skeletal remains - typically referred to as facial reconstructions - are extraordinarily popular, and frequently function as iconic representations of a much broader engagement with collections from a particular people, time and place. Their actual ability to meaningfully represent either an individual or a museum collection is questionable, as facial reconstructions created for display and published within academic journals show an enduring preference for applying invalidated methods. Since 2002 there has been an increase in verified skull-soft tissue relationships, and these, together with research findings from related academic fields, can be incorporated within an evidence-based estimation of facial appearance. By illustration, a face given to an individual from the Museo de la Plata collection is critically revised to show how validated relationships result in a different face, and furthermore a face that is more closely aligned to what constitutes knowledge and display within the contemporary museum.

Museum displays of faces derived from skeletal remains - typically referred to as facial reconstructions - are extraordinarily popular, and frequently function as iconic representations of a much broader engagement with collections from a particular people, time and place. Their actual ability to meaningfully represent either an individual or a museum collection is questionable, as facial reconstructions created for display and published within academic journals show an enduring preference for applying invalidated methods. Since 2002 there has been an increase in verified skull-soft tissue relationships, and these, together with research findings from related academic fields, can be incorporated within an evidence-based estimation of facial appearance. By illustration, a face given to an individual from the Museo de la Plata collection is critically revised to show how validated relationships result in a different face, and furthermore a face that is more closely aligned to what constitutes knowledge and display within the contemporary museum.

A forensic facial approximation is typically undertaken to generate further leads to identity of the deceased, and over the past ten years there has been a considerable increase in the number of verified relationships concerning the skull and likely facial appearance. This paper describes the evidence and methods used to approximate the face and facial features of a young woman whose remains were found in the Belanglo State Forest (New South Wales, Australia) in August 2010. A review of methodologically analogous forensic facial approximations (i.e. involving some degree of manual manipulation to achieve the results), and published in international academic journals since 2000, indicates that it is common for methodological description to be minimal. Furthermore, what information is provided clearly shows a surprisingly enduring preference for applying 'legacy' skull-soft tissue relationships, despite most of these recommendations having been proven invalid.

A forensic facial approximation is typically undertaken to generate further leads to identity of the deceased, and over the past ten years there has been a considerable increase in the number of verified relationships concerning the skull and likely facial appearance. This paper describes the evidence and methods used to approximate the face and facial features of a young woman whose remains were found in the Belanglo State Forest (New South Wales, Australia) in August 2010. A review of methodologically analogous forensic facial approximations (i.e. involving some degree of manual manipulation to achieve the results), and published in international academic journals since 2000, indicates that it is common for methodological description to be minimal. Furthermore, what information is provided clearly shows a surprisingly enduring preference for applying 'legacy' skull-soft tissue relationships, despite most of these recommendations having been proven invalid.

A forensic facial approximation is typically undertaken to generate further leads to identity of the deceased, and over the past ten years there has been a considerable increase in the number of verified relationships concerning the skull and likely facial appearance. This paper describes the evidence and methods used to approximate the face and facial features of a young woman whose remains were found in the Belanglo State Forest (New South Wales, Australia) in August 2010. A review of methodologically analogous forensic facial approximations (i.e. involving some degree of manual manipulation to achieve the results), and published in international academic journals since 2000, indicates that it is common for methodological description to be minimal. Furthermore, what information is provided clearly shows a surprisingly enduring preference for applying 'legacy' skull-soft tissue relationships, despite most of these recommendations having been proven invalid.

Since being excavated in 2003, the skull of LB1 (the holotype of Homo floresiensis) has been given many faces, though the details regarding how each was accomplished are typically few. Here we detail our application of known, and verified, relationships between the skull and soft tissues of anatomically modern humans to produce an evidence-based facial approximation of LB1. We then compare our results to nine pre-existing LB1 faces using geometric morphometrics. These analyses suggest our facial approximation differs in proportional facial width, upper lip height and nasal morphology. Some of these differences are likely due to a different interpretation of taphonomic and excavation damage, application of different 'forensic' methods and/or an idiosyncratic incorporation of aspects of non-human primate morphology. Other differences, and in particular upper lip height, are less justifiable in relation to the skeletal evidence.

Since being excavated in 2003, the skull of LB1 (the holotype of Homo floresiensis) has been given many faces, though the details regarding how each was accomplished are typically few. Here we detail our application of known, and verified, relationships between the skull and soft tissues of anatomically modern humans to produce an evidence-based facial approximation of LB1. We then compare our results to nine pre-existing LB1 faces using geometric morphometrics. These analyses suggest our facial approximation differs in proportional facial width, upper lip height and nasal morphology. Some of these differences are likely due to a different interpretation of taphonomic and excavation damage, application of different 'forensic' methods and/or an idiosyncratic incorporation of aspects of non-human primate morphology. Other differences, and in particular upper lip height, are less justifiable in relation to the skeletal evidence.

Since being excavated in 2003, the skull of LB1 (the holotype of Homo floresiensis) has been given many faces, though the details regarding how each was accomplished are typically few. Here we detail our application of known, and verified, relationships between the skull and soft tissues of anatomically modern humans to produce an evidence-based facial approximation of LB1. We then compare our results to nine pre-existing LB1 faces using geometric morphometrics. These analyses suggest our facial approximation differs in proportional facial width, upper lip height and nasal morphology. Some of these differences are likely due to a different interpretation of taphonomic and excavation damage, application of different 'forensic' methods and/or an idiosyncratic incorporation of aspects of non-human primate morphology. Other differences, and in particular upper lip height, are less justifiable in relation to the skeletal evidence.

Research into witness identification images typically occurs within the laboratory and involves subjective likeness and recognizability judgments. This study analyzed whether actual witness identification images systematically alter the facial shapes of the suspects described. The shape analysis tool, geometric morphometrics, was applied to 46 homologous facial landmarks displayed on 50 witness identification images and their corresponding arrest photographs, using principal component analysis and multivariate regressions. The results indicate that compared with arrest photographs, witness identification images systematically depict suspects with lowered and medially located eyebrows (p=

Research into witness identification images typically occurs within the laboratory and involves subjective likeness and recognizability judgments. This study analyzed whether actual witness identification images systematically alter the facial shapes of the suspects described. The shape analysis tool, geometric morphometrics, was applied to 46 homologous facial landmarks displayed on 50 witness identification images and their corresponding arrest photographs, using principal component analysis and multivariate regressions. The results indicate that compared with arrest photographs, witness identification images systematically depict suspects with lowered and medially located eyebrows (p=

Research into witness identification images typically occurs within the laboratory and involves subjective likeness and recognizability judgments. This study analyzed whether actual witness identification images systematically alter the facial shapes of the suspects described. The shape analysis tool, geometric morphometrics, was applied to 46 homologous facial landmarks displayed on 50 witness identification images and their corresponding arrest photographs, using principal component analysis and multivariate regressions. The results indicate that compared with arrest photographs, witness identification images systematically depict suspects with lowered and medially located eyebrows (p=

This paper describes two approaches to the facial approximation of three individuals from the Wairau Bar burial site (New Zealand). Two individuals were approximated working in direct reference to the remains and incorporated manual drafting. The third individual, 'Aunty' (the respectful title given by the iwi Rangitane elders) was approximated from CT scans and using computer graphics. The computer graphic approach enabled a greater level of precision in the application of the research and recommendations that inform a facial approximation, and facilitated collaboration with appropriate expertise. The computer-graphic approach, however, also resulted in a more photographic facial appearance, which can imply a greater level of knowledge about hard/soft tissue relationships than is currently available.

Research into witness identification images typically occurs within the laboratory and involves subjective likeness and recognizability judgments. This study analyzed whether actual witness identification images systematically alter the facial shapes of the suspects described. The shape analysis tool, geometric morphometrics, was applied to 46 homologous facial landmarks displayed on 50 witness identification images and their corresponding arrest photographs, using principal component analysis and multivariate regressions. The results indicate that compared with arrest photographs, witness identification images systematically depict suspects with lowered and medially located eyebrows (p=

This paper describes two approaches to the facial approximation of three individuals from the Wairau Bar burial site (New Zealand). Two individuals were approximated working in direct reference to the remains and incorporated manual drafting. The third individual, 'Aunty' (the respectful title given by the iwi Rangitane elders) was approximated from CT scans and using computer graphics. The computer graphic approach enabled a greater level of precision in the application of the research and recommendations that inform a facial approximation, and facilitated collaboration with appropriate expertise. The computer-graphic approach, however, also resulted in a more photographic facial appearance, which can imply a greater level of knowledge about hard/soft tissue relationships than is currently available.

This paper describes two approaches to the facial approximation of three individuals from the Wairau Bar burial site (New Zealand). Two individuals were approximated working in direct reference to the remains and incorporated manual drafting. The third individual, 'Aunty' (the respectful title given by the iwi Rangitane elders) was approximated from CT scans and using computer graphics. The computer graphic approach enabled a greater level of precision in the application of the research and recommendations that inform a facial approximation, and facilitated collaboration with appropriate expertise. The computer-graphic approach, however, also resulted in a more photographic facial appearance, which can imply a greater level of knowledge about hard/soft tissue relationships than is currently available.

Traditional portraiture aims to produce a life-like representation of an individual's unique facial features, but there are a number of perceptual factors that may affect how an artist sees and depicts a sitter's facial shapes. The anatomical accuracy of a portrait is predominantly ascertained subjectively, and not through quantitative methods. To see if it was possible to apply the methods of analysis more typically used to study variation in biological forms, the authors produced 30 portrait drawings based on 30 pose photographs, and analysed how the portrait drawings differed from the photographs using three different measures: visual assessment, anthropometric measures, and geometric morphometric analysis. Of the three methods, geometric morphometric analysis was found to be the far better technique to account for patterns of depiction common to one artist, and our study indicates this method may have broad research applicability to the face as it is variously represented across a range of visual media.

Within both anthropology and forensic identification, a facial approximation (also known as "facial reconstruction") is often presented as an accomplished fact, with minimal, or no evidence of the research and methods used to achieve the result. This paper presents a detailed overview of the research and methods used for a 2D computer graphic facial approximation of a prehistoric man unearthed in the Jachal Valley, San Juan Province, Argentina. Understood to be a member of the extinct Huarpe, this individual's skull displays many of the morphological features that are consistent with what is known about this group of early Amerindian farmers. Because many of the recommended methods that inform this facial approximation have yet to be verified, and those that have been appropriately tested are based on statistical averages of human variation, the results need to be viewed as indicative of this individual's possible facial appearance using current levels of knowledge, rather than as a definitive result.

Traditional portraiture aims to produce a life-like representation of an individual's unique facial features, but there are a number of perceptual factors that may affect how an artist sees and depicts a sitter's facial shapes. The anatomical accuracy of a portrait is predominantly ascertained subjectively, and not through quantitative methods. To see if it was possible to apply the methods of analysis more typically used to study variation in biological forms, the authors produced 30 portrait drawings based on 30 pose photographs, and analysed how the portrait drawings differed from the photographs using three different measures: visual assessment, anthropometric measures, and geometric morphometric analysis. Of the three methods, geometric morphometric analysis was found to be the far better technique to account for patterns of depiction common to one artist, and our study indicates this method may have broad research applicability to the face as it is variously represented across a range of visual media.

Within both anthropology and forensic identification, a facial approximation (also known as "facial reconstruction") is often presented as an accomplished fact, with minimal, or no evidence of the research and methods used to achieve the result. This paper presents a detailed overview of the research and methods used for a 2D computer graphic facial approximation of a prehistoric man unearthed in the Jachal Valley, San Juan Province, Argentina. Understood to be a member of the extinct Huarpe, this individual's skull displays many of the morphological features that are consistent with what is known about this group of early Amerindian farmers. Because many of the recommended methods that inform this facial approximation have yet to be verified, and those that have been appropriately tested are based on statistical averages of human variation, the results need to be viewed as indicative of this individual's possible facial appearance using current levels of knowledge, rather than as a definitive result.

Within both anthropology and forensic identification, a facial approximation (also known as "facial reconstruction") is often presented as an accomplished fact, with minimal, or no evidence of the research and methods used to achieve the result. This paper presents a detailed overview of the research and methods used for a 2D computer graphic facial approximation of a prehistoric man unearthed in the Jachal Valley, San Juan Province, Argentina. Understood to be a member of the extinct Huarpe, this individual's skull displays many of the morphological features that are consistent with what is known about this group of early Amerindian farmers. Because many of the recommended methods that inform this facial approximation have yet to be verified, and those that have been appropriately tested are based on statistical averages of human variation, the results need to be viewed as indicative of this individual's possible facial appearance using current levels of knowledge, rather than as a definitive result.

Traditional portraiture aims to produce a life-like representation of an individual's unique facial features, but there are a number of perceptual factors that may affect how an artist sees and depicts a sitter's facial shapes. The anatomical accuracy of a portrait is predominantly ascertained subjectively, and not through quantitative methods. To see if it was possible to apply the methods of analysis more typically used to study variation in biological forms, the authors produced 30 portrait drawings based on 30 pose photographs, and analysed how the portrait drawings differed from the photographs using three different measures: visual assessment, anthropometric measures, and geometric morphometric analysis. Of the three methods, geometric morphometric analysis was found to be the far better technique to account for patterns of depiction common to one artist, and our study indicates this method may have broad research applicability to the face as it is variously represented across a range of visual media.

In 2008 we completed facial approximations of four individuals from the early Lapita Culture, a seafaring people who were the first to settle the islands of the Western Pacific circa 3000 years ago. Typically an approximation is performed as a 3D sculpture or using computer graphics. We chose to sketch what we have been able to determine from the remains because the artistic conventions of drawing work with visual perception in ways that are more complementary to the knowledge, theories and methods that make up the facial approximation of human remains.

In 2008 we completed facial approximations of four individuals from the early Lapita Culture, a seafaring people who were the first to settle the islands of the Western Pacific circa 3000 years ago. Typically an approximation is performed as a 3D sculpture or using computer graphics. We chose to sketch what we have been able to determine from the remains because the artistic conventions of drawing work with visual perception in ways that are more complementary to the knowledge, theories and methods that make up the facial approximation of human remains.

In 2008 we completed facial approximations of four individuals from the early Lapita Culture, a seafaring people who were the first to settle the islands of the Western Pacific circa 3000 years ago. Typically an approximation is performed as a 3D sculpture or using computer graphics. We chose to sketch what we have been able to determine from the remains because the artistic conventions of drawing work with visual perception in ways that are more complementary to the knowledge, theories and methods that make up the facial approximation of human remains.