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A sustainable alternative to conventional concrete involves using recycled aggregates (RA) instead of natural aggregates (NA) and incorporating wheat straw ash (WSA) as a partial replacement for Portland cement. The demand for high-performance concrete (HPC) is rising due to the need for architecturally complex structures and long-span bridges, but HPC's low ductility necessitates reinforcement. Waste tire steel fibers (WTSFs) are gaining popularity for their tensile strength. However, WSA-RA concrete's low early strength is a challenge. Chemical activators like sodium sulfate can enhance early-age strength. This study evaluated the durability and strength of fiber-reinforced concrete with both inactivated and activated WSA. Tests included compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, modulus of rupture (MOR), acid attack resistance, chloride penetration, sorptivity, and water absorption. Activated WSA-RA concrete showed significantly improved early strength. The mixture with 30% RA, 40% WSA, WTSFs, and activator exhibited the highest strength at 90 days. At 60% RA content, activated concrete with 40% WSA and 2.5% WTSFs outperformed the control. Durability was enhanced with a 14-17% reduction in water absorption and sorptivity and a 25.2% decrease in chloride penetration. Acid resistance improved by 26%. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed these findings with elevated hydration product peaks. This study demonstrates that chemical activation of WSA optimizes the engineering properties of WSA-modified HPC with WTSFs and RA, providing a sustainable solution to their challenges., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Althoey et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Partially encased concrete (PEC) has better mechanical properties as a structure where steel and concrete work together. Due to the increasing amount of construction waste, recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is being considered by more people. However, although RAC has more points, the performance is inferior to natural aggregate concrete (NAC). To narrow or address this gap, lightweight, high-strength and corrosion-resistant CFRP can be used, also protecting the steel flange of the PEC structure. Therefore, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) confined partially encased recycled coarse aggregate concrete columns were studied in this paper. With respect to different slenderness ratios, recycled coarse aggregate(RCA) replacement ratios, and number of CFRP layers, the performance of the proposed CFRP restrained columns are reported. The RCA replacement ratio is analyzed to be limited negative impact on the bearing capacity, generally within 6%. As for the slenderness ratio, the bearing capacity increased with it. However, wrapping CFRP significantly increased the bearing capacity. Considering the arch factor, a simple formula for calculating the ultimate strength of CFRP-confined partially encased RAC columns is developed based on EC4 and GB50017-2017. By comparison with the experimental values, the error is within 10%., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Lifting-correction is a technique to restore buildings experiencing uneven settlement, while ensuring the safety and integrity of the main structural system. This study was based on a real light-steel building structure and provided a detailed description of scenarios involving uneven settlement and the process of lifting and correction. Additionally, a sophisticated finite element (FE) model was established using the generic FE software ABAQUS, with refined material constitutive models to ensure the accuracy of simulation results. Firstly, the impact of uneven settlement on the structure was examined, including modal and stress field analyses. Different methods of breaking column (BC) and lifting column (LC) were compared and scrutinized to identify optimal approaches and minimize damage and disturbance to the building. Four methods have been proposed and compared, including simultaneously breaking columns, breaking columns with chessboard style, simultaneously lifting columns and lifting columns in multiple stages. The four methods were comprehensively evaluated from the perspectives of stress fields, displacement responses, damage and energy dissipation. The results indicated that after uneven settlement, the eigenvalues and frequencies of the structure decrease, the structure tended to be unstable. Simultaneously, as stress increases, some joints' materials enter the yielding stage, affecting the overall structural stability and safety. When damage occurs in some joints, the structural safety was compromised. The comparison between the two BC methods, including the chessboard style and simultaneously BC methods, it was revealed that the former causes less disturbance to structural initial stress field. The comparison between the two LC methods, including, simultaneously and LC in multiple stages, it was revealed that the latter performs slightly better in terms of stress fields, displacement fields, damage, energy dissipation and internal forces. Therefore, the methods of BC in chessboard style and LC in multiple stages were recommended to use in engineering practice to ensure less structural disturbance. The findings obtained from this study can provide guidance for structural engineers to solve the uneven settlement of buildings., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Chen et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Electroless nickel plating is a suitable technology for the hydrogen industry because electroless nickel can be mass-produced at a low cost. Investigating in a complex environment where hydrogen permeation and friction/wear work simultaneously is necessary to apply it to hydrogen valves for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. In this research, the effects of hydrogen permeation on the mechanical characteristics of electroless nickel-plated free-cutting steel (SUM 24L) were investigated. Due to the inherent characteristics of electroless nickel plating, the damage (cracks and delamination of grain) and micro-particles by hydrogen permeation were clearly observed at the grain boundaries and triple junctions. In particular, the cracks grew from grain boundary toward the intergranualr. This is because the grain boundaries and triple junctions are hydrogen permeation pathways and increasing area of the hydrogen partial pressure. As a result, its surface roughness increased by a maximum of two times, and its hardness and adhesion strength decreased by hydrogen permeation. In particular, hydrogen permeation increased the friction coefficient of the electroless nickel-plated layer, and the damage caused by adhesive wear was significantly greater, increasing the wear depth by up to 5.7 times. This is believed to be due to the decreasing in wear resistance of the electroless nickel plating layer damaged by hydrogen permeation. Nevertheless, the Vickers hardness and the friction coefficient of the electroless nickel plating layer were improved by about 3 and 5.6 times, respectively, compared with those of the free-cutting steel. In particular, the electroless nickel-plated specimens with hydrogen embrittlement exhibited significantly better mechanical characteristics and wear resistance than the free-cutting steel., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Shin, Kim. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Steel cord materials were found to have internal porous microstructures and complex fluid flow properties. However, current studies have rarely reported the transport behavior of steel cord materials from a microscopic viewpoint. The computed tomography (CT) scanning technology and lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) were used in this study to reconstruct and compare the real three-dimensional (3D) pore structures and fluid flow in the original and tensile (by loading 800 N force) steel cord samples. The pore-scale LBM results showed that fluid velocities increased as displacement differential pressure increased in both the original and tensile steel cord samples, but with two different critical values of 3.3273 Pa and 2.6122 Pa, respectively. The original steel cord sample had higher maximal and average seepage velocities at the 1/2 sections of 3D construction images than the tensile steel cord sample. These phenomena should be attributed to the fact that when the original steel cord sample was stretched, its porosity decreased, pore radius increased, flow channel connectivity improved, and thus flow velocity increased. Moreover, when the internal porosity of tensile steel cord sample was increased by 1 time, lead the maximum velocity to increase by 1.52 times, and the average velocity was increased by 1.66 times. Furthermore, when the density range was determined to be 0-38, the pore phase showed the best consistency with the segmentation area. Depending on the Zou-He Boundary and Regularized Boundary, the relative error of simulated average velocities was only 0.2602 percent., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Zhao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

A mechanical device inspired by the pistol shrimp snapper claw was developed. This technology features a claw characterized by a periodic opening/closing motion, at a controlled frequency, capable of producing oscillating flows at transitional Reynolds numbers. An innovative method was also proposed for determining the corrosion rate of carbon steel samples under oscillating acidic streams (aqueous solution of HCl). By employing very-thin carbon steel specimens (25 μm thickness), with one side coated with Zn and not exposed to the stream, it became possible to electrochemically sense the Zn surface once the steel sample was perforated, thus providing the average dissolution rate into the most relevant pit on the steel surface. Furthermore, a laser light positioned beneath the metallic sample, along with a camera programmed to periodically capture images of the steel surface, facilitated the accurate counting of the number of newly formed pits. The system consisting of the thin steel sample and the Zn coating can be seen as a type of corrosion sensor. Furthermore, the proposed laser illumination method allows corroborating the electrochemical detection of pits and also establishing their location. The techniques crafted in this study pave the way for developing alternative corrosion sensors that boast appealing attributes: affordability, compactness, and acceptable accuracy to detect in time and space localized damage., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Godínez et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

One of the methods to improve the structural design of concrete is by updating the factors given in standard codes, especially when non-conventional materials are used in concrete beams. Accordingly, this study focuses on the colorations between the compressive strength and shear strength of high-strength concrete beams with and without steel fibers. For that purpose, different models are proposed to predict shear strength of high-strength concrete beams, by taking different combinations of the main variables: beam cross-section dimension (width and effective depth), reinforcement index, concrete compressive strength, shear span ratio, and steel fiber properties (volumetric content, fiber aspect ratio, and type of steel fibers). Multi-linear and non-linear regression analyses are used with large database experimental results found in the literature. The predicted results from the proposed equations are composed with different available models from codes, standards, and literatures. The calculated results showed better correlations and were close enough to the experimental data. Based on the data given in the standard codes, the shear strength is proportional to compressive strength ([Formula: see text]) of the power 0.5. However, this value may not be adequate for modern cement and concrete containing steel fibers. Therefore, the mentioned power value must be reduced 5 times to 0.1., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Numerous metallurgical and materials science applications depend on quantitative atomic-scale characterizations of environmentally-sensitive materials and their transient states. Studying the effect upon materials subjected to thermochemical treatments in specific gaseous atmospheres is of central importance for specifically studying a material's resistance to certain oxidative or hydrogen environments. It is also important for investigating catalytic materials, direct reduction of an oxide, particular surface science reactions or nanoparticle fabrication routes. This manuscript realizes such experimental protocols upon a thermochemical reaction chamber called the "Reacthub" and allows for transferring treated materials under cryogenic & ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) workflow conditions for characterisation by either atom probe or scanning Xe+/electron microscopies. Two examples are discussed in the present study. One protocol was in the deuterium gas charging (25 kPa D2 at 200°C) of a high-manganese twinning-induced-plasticity (TWIP) steel and characterization of the ingress and trapping of hydrogen at various features (grain boundaries in particular) in efforts to relate this to the steel's hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility. Deuterium was successfully detected after gas charging but most contrast originated from the complex ion FeOD+ signal and the feature may be an artefact. The second example considered the direct deuterium reduction (5 kPa D2 at 700°C) of a single crystal wüstite (FeO) sample, demonstrating that under a standard thermochemical treatment causes rapid reduction upon the nanoscale. In each case, further studies are required for complete confidence about these phenomena, but these experiments successfully demonstrate that how an ex-situ thermochemical treatment can be realised that captures environmentally-sensitive transient states that can be analysed by atomic-scale by atom probe microscope., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The mechanical properties of loess-steel interface are of great significance for understanding the residual strength and deformation of loess. However, the undisturbed loess has significant structural properties, while the remolded loess has weak structural properties. There are few reports on the mechanical properties of loess-steel interface from the structural point of view. This paper focused on the ring shear test between undisturbed loess as well as its remolded loess and steel interface under the same physical mechanics and test conditions (water content, shear rate and vertical pressure), and explored the influence mechanism of structure on the mechanical deformation characteristics of steel-loess interface. The results show that the shear rate has little effect on the residual strength of the undisturbed and remolded loess-steel interface. However, the water content has a significant influence on the residual strength of the loess-steel interface, moreover, the residual internal friction angle is the dominant factor supporting the residual strength of the loess-steel interface. In general, the residual strength of the undisturbed loess-steel interface is greater than that of the remolded loess specimen (for example, the maximum percentage of residual strength difference between undisturbed and remolded loess specimens under the same moisture content is 6.8%), which is because that compared with the mosaic arrangement structure of the remolded loess, the overhead arrangement structure of the undisturbed loess skeleton particles makes the loess particles on the loess-steel interface re-adjust the arrangement direction earlier and reach a stable speed relatively faster. The loess particles with angular angles in the undisturbed loess make the residual internal friction between the particles greater than the smoother particles of the remolded loess (for example, the maximum percentage of residual cohesion difference between undisturbed and remolded loess specimens under the same vertical pressure is 4.29%), and the intact cement between undisturbed loess particles brings stronger cohesion than the remolded loess particles with destroyed cement (for example, the maximum difference percentage of residual cohesion between undisturbed and remolded soil specimens under the same vertical pressure is 33.80%). The test results provide experimental basis for further revealing the influence mechanism of structure, and parameter basis for similar engineering construction., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Results from sampling healthcare surfaces for pathogens are difficult to interpret without understanding the factors that influence pathogen detection. We investigated the recovery of four healthcare-associated pathogens from three common surface materials, and how a body fluid simulant (artificial test soil, ATS), deposition method, and contamination levels influence the percent of organisms recovered (%R). Known quantities of carbapenemase-producing KPC+ Klebsiella pneumoniae (KPC), Acinetobacter baumannii, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, and Clostridioides difficile spores (CD) were suspended in Butterfield's buffer or ATS, deposited on 323cm2 steel, plastic, and laminate surfaces, allowed to dry 1h, then sampled with a cellulose sponge wipe. Bacteria were eluted, cultured, CFU counted and %R determined relative to the inoculum. The %R varied by organism, from <1% (KPC) to almost 60% (CD) and was more dependent upon the organism's characteristics and presence of ATS than on surface type. KPC persistence as determined by culture also declined by >1 log10 within the 60 min drying time. For all organisms, the %R was significantly greater if suspended in ATS than if suspended in Butterfield's buffer (p<0.05), and for most organisms the %R was not significantly different when sampled from any of the three surfaces. Organisms deposited in multiple droplets were recovered at equal or higher %R than if spread evenly on the surface. This work assists in interpreting data collected while investigating a healthcare infection outbreak or while conducting infection intervention studies., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In order to investigate the effect of pre-loading damage on the structural performance of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) strengthened Reinforced Concrete (R.C.) beams, experimental and Finite Element Modelling (FEM) investigation was carried out on six R.C. beams. Five of the R.C. beams were damaged up to different levels of strain in the main steel bars before Flexure CFRP strengthening. One of the R.C. beams loaded up to failure and was kept as a control beam for comparison. The experimental results showed that the failure mode of the CFRP strengthened specimen was controlled by CFRP debonding followed by concrete crushing; however, the control beam failed in concrete crushing after yielding the steel bars, which is a ductile failure. The CFRP sheet increases the strength and initial stiffness of the R.C. beams and reduces ductility and toughness. Also, CFRP application increases the first crack and yielding steel bars load by 87.4% and 34.4%, respectively. Furthermore, the pre-damage level does not influence the strength and ductility of the strengthened R.C. beams except for the highest damage levels, which experienced a slight decrease in load capacity and ductility. However, the initial stiffness decreases with increasing pre-damage levels by 40%. Design guideline ACI 440.2R (2004) predicts the ultimate load capacity marvelously for externally bonded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) beams compared to the experimental maximum load capacity. The excellent agreement between experimental and FEM results indicates that the constitutive models used for concrete and reinforcement and the cohesive interface model can well capture fracture behavior. However, The FEM analysis predicts the beam to be slightly stiffer and more robust, probably because of the assumed perfect bond between concrete and reinforcement. The developed FEM can be used for further parametric study., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The automobile industry contributes significantly to global energy use and carbon emissions. Hence, there are significant economic and environmental benefits in recovering materials from end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). Here, the remanufacturing of waste steel sheet (WSS) from ELVs into useful mesh steel sheet (MSS) for metal forming applications was evaluated based on its technological, economic, and environmental feasibility. A remanufacturing plant with a dismantling capacity of over 30,171 ELV/year and a recovery capacity of 1000 m2/d of WSS was used as a case study. Remanufacturing can achieve a total reduction of ~3800 kg CO2/ELV and an economic benefit of ~775 USD/ELV compared with conventional recycling. The calculated feasibility indexes were similar to or exceeded standard feasibility thresholds, indicating that WSS remanufacturing is a viable sustainable development route and has synergistic benefits when combined with existing recycling plants, especially in developing countries as small-to-medium enterprises., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The reinforced concrete-filled steel tube (RCFST) column solves several of the problems of the concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) column in practical engineering applications. Moreover, RCFST has a simple joint structure, high bearing capacity, good ductility, and superior fire resistance. From a structural safety perspective, designers prioritize the creep performance of CFST members in structural design. Therefore, the creep behavior of RCFST columns should be thoroughly investigated in practical engineering design. To study the influence of the creep behavior of RCFST columns under axial compression, this work analyzed the mechanical behavior of composite columns based on their mechanical characteristics under axial compression and established a creep formula suitable for RCFST columns under axial compression. A creep analysis program was also developed to obtain the creep strain-time curve, and its correctness was verified by existing tests. On this basis, the effects of the main design parameters, such as the stress level, steel ratio, and reinforcement ratio, on the creep behavior were determined and analyzed. The creep of the tested composite columns increased rapidly in the early stages (28 days) of load action; the growth rate was relatively low after 28 days and tended to stabilize after approximately six months. The stress level had the greatest influence on the creep of RCFST columns under axial compression, followed by the steel ratio. The influence of the reinforcement ratio on the creep behavior was less. The results of this study can provide a reference for engineering practice., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Pull-out testing was carried out to evaluate the effects of shape, size and concentration of steel aggregates on anchorage performance. Steel grit with particle sizes of 1.5, 2.0, and 2.8 mm and steel shot diameters of 1.4, 2.0, and 2.5 mm were used as steel aggregates and were added into the resin anchoring agent. For each kind of steel aggregate, either 30, 40 or 50 aggregates were used to evaluate the effects of different steel aggregate densities. Anchorage specimens were prepared using ϕ20mm rebar bolts and steel sleeves. Compressive and shear strengths of resin containing steel aggregates, the pullout curve, and the circumferential strain of the sleeves were measured, and the energy consumption was calculated. Results show that compressive and shear strengths of resin containing steel grit and steel shot are increased by 8.4%-17.0% compared to pure resin. For the aggregate numbers of 30, 40 and 50, the anchoring force is increased by 7.9%, 7.5% and 6.5%; energy consumption is increased by 19.2%, 15.0% and 18.6%; and the circumferential strain of the specimen is increased by 28.4%, 25.1% and 39.5%, respectively. The effect of aggregate size on anchoring performance is significant; that is, the aggregate sizes of 1.4~1.5, 2.0 and 2.5~2.8 mm increase the anchoring force, energy consumption and sleeve circumferential strain by 8.5%, 4.6% and 8.7%, 16.0%, 8.4% and 28.4%, and 17.9%, 23.3% and 51.9%, respectively. The relationships of the anchoring force, energy consumption, and circumferential strain with steel aggregate quantity and size are formulated. Results show that the addition of steel aggregates increases the compressive and shear strengths of the resin, and steel aggregate quantity and size have significant impact on anchoring performance. This paper provides the basis for optimization of resin anchoring agents used in the mining industry. The impact of anchoring agent shear strength and residual shear strength on the anchoring effect were also discussed based on the failure analysis of the anchoring section., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In this paper, the heat transfer characteristics of the forced air quenching with non-isothermal and non-uniform oxidation are investigated. By introducing the variations of interfacial temperature and oxygen partial pressure, a three-layered non-isothermal high-temperature oxidation kinetic model is developed, in which a discrete-time modeling method is employed to solve the problem of integration of the transient terms, and a special interfacial grid treatment is used for considering the growth of each oxide layer and updating of the thermal properties. Moreover, a parameter identification method using the multi-objective genetic algorithm is proposed for the inverse solution of the oxidation parabolic parameters based on the measured scale thicknesses in oxidation experiment. A case study of the forced air quenching of a Q235 disk is presented to validate the availability of the developed formulas. Then the interfacial heat transfer characteristics are analyzed, while the numerical solutions with and without oxidation are both performed for in-depth comparison. Results indicate that the active quenching region is mainly centralized in the vicinity of stagnation region. The radial variation regularity of the temperature difference across the total oxide layer is mainly determined by the thermal conductivity and the scale thickness. The existence of the oxide scale actually produces a certain thermal resistance during the quenching process and the effects of the oxide scale increases with the radial coordinate due to the interfacial temperature distribution. The results obtained can provide theoretical derivation for precise control of the internal phase transformation during the forced air quenching process., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In this paper, an extensive simulation program is conducted to find out the optimal ANN model to predict the shear strength of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) concrete beams containing both flexural and shear reinforcements. For acquiring this purpose, an experimental database containing 125 samples is collected from the literature and used to find the best architecture of ANN. In this database, the input variables consist of 9 inputs, such as the ratio of the beam width, the effective depth, the shear span to the effective depth, the compressive strength of concrete, the longitudinal FRP reinforcement ratio, the modulus of elasticity of longitudinal FRP reinforcement, the FRP shear reinforcement ratio, the tensile strength of FRP shear reinforcement, the modulus of elasticity of FRP shear reinforcement. Thereafter, the selection of the appropriate architecture of ANN model is performed and evaluated by common statistical measurements. The results show that the optimal ANN model is a highly efficient predictor of the shear strength of FRP concrete beams with a maximum R2 value of 0.9634 on the training part and an R2 of 0.9577 on the testing part, using the best architecture. In addition, a sensitivity analysis using the optimal ANN model over 500 Monte Carlo simulations is performed to interpret the influence of reinforcement type on the stability and accuracy of ANN model in predicting shear strength. The results of this investigation could facilitate and enhance the use of ANN model in different real-world problems in the field of civil engineering., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The plastic hinge is a key factor in the ductile and plastic design of structures and an important basis for the seismic strengthening of structures. The formation and behavior of plastic hinges is critical for the seismic performance of an entire structure. The relocation of plastic hinges away from the beam end is an effective way of addressing brittle failure. In this paper, the cause of the shear buckling failure of prefabricated steel beams with corrugated webs and the strain variation at the flanges of steel beams are theoretically analyzed through structural tests. Based on the analysis results, a local strengthening method is proposed, and the effects of the beam sizes and the strengthening steel plate on the plastic hinges are obtained. In addition, a calculation method for determining the size of the strengthening steel plate that promotes the relocation of the plastic zone away from the beam end is given, a design method for plastic hinge relocation is proposed based on the test data, and its validity is verified., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Thermal spray technology, which involves the Atmospheric Plasma Spraying (APS), encompasses a category of coating processes that supply surface properties to protect or improve the performance of a substrate or component. The coating produced by this technology is built by overlapped splats, whose morphology determines the coating properties. In the same way, the splats obtained in a separated distribution by interposing a perforated mask but using the same thermal spray parameters, has a relationship with the overlapped splats inside the coating. The samples with isolated splats have the advantage of being faster and cheaper to generate and analyse. This article analyses alumina plasma-sprayed splats on steel substrates by image processing techniques, which recognize individual splats and their corresponding morphology (doughnut and pancake) parameters. These parameters allow the user to efficiently classify the splats. After that classification, a quality control can be implemented by comparison between the original and checked sample of isolated splats and a new sample obtained during a small interruption in the normal operation. Additionally, these parameters obtained in an automated way can be used to evaluate the effect of different selections of spraying process parameters., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The deformation law for axisymmetric deformation during the drawing of a core filled tube (CORFT) has been studied. However, the results of such studies could not be used in the flat rolling process of the CORFT, which is a plan deformation condition. In this paper, the inner core material and outer steel tube were successively analyzed based on the slab method during the flat rolling process (plan deformation) of the CORFT, and equations for wall thickness, core density, and roll force have been developed. The theoretical results solved by the developed equations were compared with the experimental results, revealing adequate accuracy for engineering requirements. The influences of rolling parameters on the roll force and the ultimate value of the relative density of the core material were studied, and the limiting condition for a larger roll force or higher value for relative density was obtained., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

China has the largest share of global iron and steel production, which is considered to play a significant contribution to air pollution. This study aims to investigate trace element contamination at different fractions of particulate matter (PM) at industrial areas in China. Three PM fractions, PM2.1-9.0, PM1.1-2.1 and PM1.1, were collected from areas surrounding iron and steelmaking plants at Kunming, Wuhan, Nanjing and Ningbo in China. Multiple trace elements and their bioavailability, as well as Pb isotopic compositions, were analysed for identification of contaminants, health risk assessment and source apportionment. Results showed that PM particles in the sites near industrial areas were associated with a range of toxic trace elements, specifically As, Cr(VI), Cd and Mn, and posed significant health risks to humans. The isotopic Pb compositions identified that coal and high temperature metallurgical processes in the steelmaking process were the dominant contributors to local air pollution in these sites. In addition to iron and steelmaking activities, traffic emissions and remote pollution also played a contributing role in PM contamination, confirmed by the differences of Pb isotopic compositions at each PM fraction and statistical results from Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE) and Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA). The results presented in this study provide a comprehensive understanding of PM emissions at iron and steelmaking areas, which helps to guide subsequent updates of air pollution control guidelines to efficiently minimise environmental footprint and ensure long term sustainability of the industries., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The present investigation devices a novel X-type six-high (X-6h) mill. In addition, parametric models of different roll layouts such as the four-high (4-h), I-type six-high (I-6h), and X-6h mills are established. Three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) contact analysis for a strip rolling process is conducted when the mills are subjected to a constant vertical load of 65 kN. Through comparative analysis of von Mises stress, contact stress and elastic deformation displacement in three roll layouts, the rigidity characteristic of each is obtained, and it is found that the proposed X-6h mill has the largest roll gap stiffness. The influence of different roll diameter ratios on the roll gap stiffness of the roll system is investigated, based on which an optimization design model is built. Further, by taking into account the roll gap stiffness of the roll system as the optimization objective, the optimum diameter ratios of backup roll (BUR) to work roll (WR) of the X-6h rolling mill is achieved via the genetic algorithm (GA) optimization method, obtaining the optimum structural parameters of BUR and WR as well. The reliability of the proposed design is verified by manufacturing a prototype mill which produced magnesium alloy and aluminum alloy strips of high quality., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

To investigate morphological characteristics and generation mechanism of the machined gears surface, image characteristics of machined surface morphology including profile roughness, fractal and textural characteristics were studied. the change of profile curves for the surface image is subject to the normal probability density function and the W-M function. The orientation angle of surface texture is 0°, the surface profile curves are the smoothest and have the most uniform, regular textures. When the texture orientation is 45° or 135°, the surface profile curves show large fluctuations, while surface image textures present the deepest grooves and are shown to be distributed most irregularly. Additionally, the influence mechanism of different grinding parameters on the morphological characteristics of machined surface was investigated. The quality of machined surfaces increased with the grinding speed while deteriorated with increasing radial, or axial, feed speeds., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Microbial colonization can be detrimental to the integrity of metal surfaces and lead to microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). Biocorrosion is a serious problem for aquatic and marine industries in the world. In Minnesota (USA), where this study was conducted, biocorrosion severely affects the maritime transportation industry. The anticorrosion activity of a variety of compounds, including chemical (magnesium peroxide) and biological (surfactin, capsaicin, and gramicidin) molecules were investigated as coating additives. We also evaluated a previously engineered, extremely stable, non-biocidal enzyme known to interfere in bacterial signaling, SsoPox (a quorum quenching lactonase). Experimental steel coupons were submerged in water from the Duluth Superior Harbor (DSH) for 8 weeks in the laboratory. Biocorrosion was evaluated by counting the number and the coverage of corrosion tubercles on coupons and also by ESEM imaging of the coupon surface. Three experimental coating additives significantly reduced the formation of corrosion tubercles: surfactin, magnesium peroxide and the quorum quenching lactonase by 31%, 36% and 50%, respectively. DNA sequence analysis of the V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene revealed that these decreases in corrosion were associated with significant changes in the composition of bacterial communities on the steel surfaces. These results demonstrate the potential of highly stable quorum quenching lactonases to provide a reliable, cost-effective method to treat steel structures and prevent biocorrosion., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Pure torsional shear tests of joints glued with two different aerospace grade adhesives were performed using a specifically designed and constructed torsional shear test equipment. The developed test equipment allows for measuring of pure torsional shear strength under cryogenic and at elevated temperature conditions. The adhesives Hysol EA 9321 and 3M Scotch-Weld EC-9323-2 B/A were used to join steel torsional shear test specimens. Torsional shear tests were performed from -180°C to 150°C. In addition torsional shear fatigue tests were also performed at various loads and the effect of cryogenic aging (cyclic cooling and warming) on the torsional strength of the joints was investigated. The results showed that both sets of adhesive joints achieved three times higher torsional shear strength at -180°C compared to room temperature., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Treated Rhizopora mucronata tannin (RMT) as a corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel and copper in oil and gas facilities was investigated. Corrosion rate of carbon-steel and copper in 3wt% NaCl solution by RMT was studied using chemical (weight loss method) and spectroscopic (FTIR) techniques at various temperatures in the ranges of 26-90°C. The weight loss data was compared to the electrochemical by the application of Faraday's law for the conversion of corrosion rate data from one system to another. The inhibitive efficiency of RMT was compared with commercial inhibitor sodium benzotriazole (BTA-S). The best concentration of RMT was 20% (w/v), increase in concentration of RMT decreased the corrosion rate and increased the inhibitive efficiency. Increase in temperature increased the corrosion rate and decreased the inhibitive efficiency but, the rate of corrosion was mild with RMT. The FTIR result shows the presence of hydroxyl group, aromatic group, esters and the substituted benzene group indicating the purity of the tannin. The trend of RMT was similar to that of BTA-S, but its inhibitive efficiency for carbon-steel was poor (6%) compared to RMT (59%). BTA-S was efficient for copper (76%) compared to RMT (74%) at 40% (w/v) and 20% (w/v) concentration respectively. RMT was efficient even at low concentration therefore, the use of RMT as a cost effective and environmentally friendly corrosion inhibiting agent for carbon steel and copper is herein proposed., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interest exist.

Surface modification of polymers and paints is a popular and effective way to enhance the properties of these materials. This can be achieved by introducing a thin coating that preserves the bulk properties of the material, while protecting it from environmental exposure. Suitable materials for such coating technologies are inorganic oxides, such as alumina, titania and silica; however, the fate of these materials during long-term environmental exposure is an open question. In this study, polymer coatings that had been enhanced with the addition of silica nanoparticles (SiO2NPs) and subsequently subjected to environmental exposure, were characterized both before and after the exposure to determine any structural changes resulting from the exposure. High-resolution synchrotron macro ATR-FTIR microspectroscopy and surface topographic techniques, including optical profilometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM), were used to determine the long-term effect of the environment on these dual protection layers after 3 years of exposure to tropical and sub-tropical climates in Singapore and Queensland (Australia). Principal component analysis (PCA) based on the synchrotron macro ATR-FTIR spectral data revealed that, for the 9% (w/w) SiO2NP/polymer coating, a clear discrimination was observed between the control group (no environmental exposure) and those samples subjected to three years of environmental exposure in both Singapore and Queensland. The PCA loading plots indicated that, over the three year exposure period, a major change occurred in the triazine ring vibration in the melamine resins. This can be attributed to the triazine ring being very sensitive to hydrolysis under the high humidity conditions in tropical/sub-tropical environments. This work provides the first direct molecular evidence, acquired using a high-resolution mapping technique, of the climate-induced chemical evolution of a polyester coating. The observed changes in the surface topography of the coating are consistent with the changes in chemical composition.

Slag-based silicate fertilizer has been widely used to improve soil silicon- availability and crop productivity. A consecutive early rice-late rice rotation experiment was conducted to test the impacts of steel slag on soil pH, silicon availability, rice growth and metals-immobilization in paddy soil. Our results show that application of slag at a rate above higher or equal to 1 600 mg plant-available SiO2 per kg soil increased soil pH, dry weight of rice straw and grain, plant-available Si concentration and Si concentration in rice shoots compared with the control treatment. No significant accumulation of total cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) was noted in soil; rather, the exchangeable fraction of Cd significantly decreased. The cadmium concentrations in rice grains decreased significantly compared with the control treatment. In conclusion, application of steel slag reduced soil acidity, increased plant-availability of silicon, promoted rice growth and inhibited Cd transport to rice grain in the soil-plant system., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Certain species of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) use cathodes as electron donors for metabolism, and this electron transfer process may influence the proper protection potential choice for structures. The interaction between SRB and polarized electrodes had been the focus of numerous investigations. In this paper, the impact of cathodic protection (CP) on Desulfovibrio caledoniens metabolic activity and its influence on highs trength steel EQ70 were studied by bacterial analyses and electrochemical measurements. The results showed that EQ70 under -0.85 VSCE CP had a higher corrosion rate than that without CP, while EQ70 with -1.05 VSCE had a lower corrosion rate. The enhanced SRB metabolic activity at -0.85 VSCE was most probably caused by the direct electron transfer from the electrode polarized at -0.85 VSCE. This direct electron transfer pathway was unavailable in -1.05 VSCE. In addition, the application of cathodic protection led to the transformation of sulfide rusts into carbonates rusts. These observations have been employed to provide updated recommendations for the optimum CP potential for steel structures in the presence of SRB., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Microbially induced corrosion (MIC) is a complex problem that affects various industries. Several techniques have been developed to monitor corrosion and elucidate corrosion mechanisms, including microbiological processes that induce metal deterioration. We used zero resistance ammetry (ZRA) in a split chamber configuration to evaluate the effects of the facultatively anaerobic Fe(III) reducing bacterium Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 on the corrosion of UNS G10180 carbon steel. We show that activities of S. oneidensis inhibit corrosion of steel with which that organism has direct contact. However, when a carbon steel coupon in contact with S. oneidensis was electrically connected to a second coupon that was free of biofilm (in separate chambers of the split chamber assembly), ZRA-based measurements indicated that current moved from the S. oneidensis-containing chamber to the cell-free chamber. This electron transfer enhanced the O2 reduction reaction on the coupon deployed in the cell free chamber, and consequently, enhanced oxidation and corrosion of that electrode. Our results illustrate a novel mechanism for MIC in cases where metal surfaces are heterogeneously covered by biofilms.

To study multi-fractal behavior of corroded steel surface, a range of fractal surfaces of corroded surfaces of Q235 steel were constructed by using the Weierstrass-Mandelbrot method under a high total accuracy. The multi-fractal spectrum of fractal surface of corroded steel was calculated to study the multi-fractal characteristics of the W-M corroded surface. Based on the shape feature of the multi-fractal spectrum of corroded steel surface, the least squares method was applied to the quadratic fitting of the multi-fractal spectrum of corroded surface. The fitting function was quantitatively analyzed to simplify the calculation of multi-fractal characteristics of corroded surface. The results showed that the multi-fractal spectrum of corroded surface was fitted well with the method using quadratic curve fitting, and the evolution rules and trends were forecasted accurately. The findings can be applied to research on the mechanisms of corroded surface formation of steel and provide a new approach for the establishment of corrosion damage constitutive models of steel.

A new experimental method, called the 'hole filling method', is proposed to simulate the healing of internal cracks in rolled workpieces. Based on the experimental results, the evolution in the microstructure, in terms of diffusion, nucleation and recrystallisation were used to analyze the crack healing mechanism. We also validated the phenomenon of segmented healing. Internal crack healing involves plastic deformation, heat transfer and an increase in the free energy introduced by the cracks. It is proposed that internal cracks heal better under high plastic deformation followed by slow cooling after rolling. Crack healing is controlled by diffusion of atoms from the matrix to the crack surface, and also by the nucleation and growth of ferrite grain on the crack surface. The diffusion mechanism is used to explain the source of material needed for crack healing. The recrystallisation mechanism is used to explain grain nucleation and growth, accompanied by atomic migration to the crack surface.

An implicit finite element model was developed to analyze the deformation behavior of low carbon steel during phase transformation. The finite element model was coupled hierarchically with a phase field model that could simulate the kinetics and micro-structural evolution during the austenite-to-ferrite transformation of low carbon steel. Thermo-elastic-plastic constitutive equations for each phase were adopted to confirm the transformation plasticity due to the weaker phase yielding that was proposed by Greenwood and Johnson. From the simulations under various possible plastic properties of each phase, a more quantitative understanding of the origin of transformation plasticity was attempted by a comparison with the experimental observation.