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Mutations in the kinase domain of ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) have recently been shown to be important for the progression of the childhood tumour neuroblastoma. In the present study we investigate six of the putative reported constitutively active ALK mutations, in positions G1128A, I1171N, F1174L, R1192P, F1245C and R1275Q. Our analyses were performed in cell-culture-based systems with both mouse and human ALK mutant variants and subsequently in a Drosophila melanogaster model system. Our investigation addressed the transforming potential of the putative gain-of-function ALK mutations as well as their signalling potential and the ability of two ATP-competitive inhibitors, Crizotinib (PF-02341066) and NVP-TAE684, to abrogate the activity of ALK. The results of the present study indicate that all mutations tested are of an activating nature and thus are implicated in tumour initiation or progression of neuroblastoma. Importantly for neuroblastoma patients, all ALK mutations used in the present study can be blocked by the inhibitors, although some mutants exhibited higher levels of drug sensitivity than others.

RTKs (receptor tyrosine kinases) play important roles in cellular proliferation and differentiation. In addition, RTKs reveal oncogenic potential when their kinase activities are constitutively enhanced by point mutation, amplification or rearrangement of the corresponding genes. The ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) RTK was originally identified as a member of the insulin receptor subfamily of RTKs that acquires transforming capability when truncated and fused to NPM (nucleophosmin) in the t(2;5) chromosomal rearrangement associated with ALCL (anaplastic large cell lymphoma). To date, many chromosomal rearrangements leading to enhanced ALK activity have been described and are implicated in a number of cancer types. Recent reports of the EML4 (echinoderm microtubule-associated protein like 4)–ALK oncoprotein in NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer), together with the identification of activating point mutations in neuroblastoma, have highlighted ALK as a significant player and target for drug development in cancer. In the present review we address the role of ALK in development and disease and discuss implications for the future.

14-3-3 proteins play a regulatory role and participate in both signal transduction and checkpoint control pathways. 14-3-3 proteins bind phosphoserine ligands, such as Raf-1 kinase and Bad, by recognizing the phosphorylated consensus motif, Arg-Ser-Xaa-pSer-Xaa-Pro (where ‘Xaa’ represents ‘any residue’, and ‘pSer’ is ‘phosphoserine’) . However, 14-3-3 proteins must bind unphosphorylated ligands, such as glycoprotein Ibα and Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoenzyme S (ExoS), since it has been suggested that specific residues of 14-3-3 proteins are required for activation of ExoS. Furthermore, an unphosphorylated peptide derived from a phage display library inhibited the binding of both ExoS and Raf-1 to 14-3-3, and bound within the same conserved amphipathic groove on the surface of 14-3-3 as the Raf-derived phosphopeptide (pS-Raf-259). In the present study we identify the interaction site on ExoS for 14-3-3, and show that ExoS and 14-3-3 do indeed interact in vivo. In addition, we show that this interaction is critical for the ADP-ribosylation of Ras by ExoS, both in vitro and in vivo. Loss of the 14-3-3 binding site on ExoS results in an ExoS molecule that is unable to efficiently inactivate Ras, and displays reduced killing activity.