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The escape speed from one point-mass M1 is u1 = (--2U1)'=2 with U1 (= --M1G/s1) the (Newtonian) gravitational potential energy and s1 the distance between M1 and a chosen point. Observing that the escape speed, from two or more masses, increases, the total escape speed (i.e., from all the masses in universe) becomes u = (--2U)'=2, with U the total potential (energy), which is related, as shown, to the universe mass MU: According to many authors, Mu « 1053kg, and, on these bases, we found, on Earth, u ! c, so we assumed c = u. This equality implies the massiveness of the light, and because of its two related parameters, k and v, we inferred that the light has to be composed of longitudinal massive particles, photons (each one having length k), moving, along rays (succession of photons along the same direction), toward infinity with speed c (function of U), while their frequency v turns out to be their number, of the same ray, flowing in time unit. These particles, due to their speed and mass, have a momentum, and therefore, if photons and a circling electron should have, at their impact, opposite direction, the electron could fall into its nucleus; hence, the electron should have a different structure, where its charge is not uniformly distributed, whereas it can be considered as a point particle, fixed on the electron surface, facing the atom nucleus during the electron orbits, while the electron charge turns out to be the photons-electron impact point, where photons are absorbed and released. Due to this electron structure, the incident photons always force the impacting circling electron to move, with a radial velocity w (function of the incident photons frequency) toward wider orbits. On these bases, during these impacts, the electron becomes the source of re-emitted photons; hence, because of the Doppler effect involving both the incident photons and the recoiled electron, the frequency of the re-emitted photons decreases, while their length (due to the electron radial velocity w lasting as long as the interaction time T) increases by the value wT, inducing the invariance of the speed of light, despite any relative motion observer-source; we also found this invariance (which regards the interaction light-matter only) through the conservation of energy of the incident photons. Regarding the claimed time dilation, which occurs between two atomic clocks (ACs) at different potential U (e.g., at different altitude on Earth), it is shown that any variation DU implies a variation Dc, and, contemporarily, since the ACs are sources of photons at a given frequency on Earth, DU gives a variation of the ACs frequency Dv, hence of their ticking time T = 1/v, and therefore a variation of their counted time. Finally, the equality c = u implies a cosmological reason regarding an endless balance between collapse and dispersion of the universe masses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The explanation of Einstein’s special theory of relativity in his original 1905 paper is examined. His analysis is confusing, as terms x, y, z, t, etc., have different meanings at various points, and he presents equations based on different and inconsistent assumptions. Adding subscripts clarifies these issues but exposes errors in his reasoning. To calculate his transformation equations, he selects a combination of equations which gives results matching the Lorentz transformation but he ignores other possible valid solutions. Also his calculations contain serious errors. Therefore, he fails to prove that his theory leads to the Lorentz equations as a unique solution. Einstein’s analysis includes “moving” clocks which show “stationary” time t, so the idea that a moving clock should run slower than a stationary clock is incompatible with his theory. Also, his calculation of time dilation contains serious errors. As a result, he fails to provide a theoretical justification for his famous “clocks paradox.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reciprocal length contraction and time dilation, as enshrined in the Lorentz transformation, are the bulwark of the special relativity theory. Reciprocal time dilation is typically discussed (in the context of its apparent contradiction) and usually explained away as the result of differing synchronization in inertial reference frames and the relativity of simultaneity. Further, it is generally suggested that time is an abstract concept, and its perceptions may differ with context. However, we suggest that regarding length measurements no such abstraction can be envisaged. In this manuscript, we examine the reciprocal length contraction in detail to assess whether it leads to any contradiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Hafele-Keating experiment showed the occurrence of time dilation in clocks placed on two airplanes, one moving eastward and one moving westward relative to the Earth's rotation. However, the application of the special theory of relativity failed to account for the significant differences in the data. This problem is solved by a novel approach that focuses on the absolute velocities of the clocks with reference to the Earth's rotation and uses space as a fixed reference point. The basic idea here is that time dilatation is an experimental fact and, therefore, independent from the theory behind it, so it is independent from relativism. Time dilatation also can occur under absolute conditions. Up until now, it is not clear if the concept of relativism is correct or not. The existence of time dilatation cannot be proofs for relativism as time dilatation also can occur under absolute conditions. Here, it is established that the eastbound plane had a higher absolute velocity than its westbound counterpart, resulting in time dilation figures of 50 and 140 ns, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is devoted to the criticism of the wave-particle dualism and the provisions of the special theory of relativity (SRT). The fallacy of accepting the extended principle of relativity and identifying particles and waves is shown. The substantiation is given that the own fields of physical objects, which are material substances and spatially connect physical objects with each other, are the medium of propagation of light waves. The causal and visual picture of the propagation of light waves is considered, and the features of the mechanism of their propagation in comparison with other types of waves are described. On the basis of an alternative method for obtaining the relativistic law of velocities addition, the inconsistency of the principle of invariance of the interval adopted in the framework of SRT is shown. The inconsistency of the SRT positions and conclusions regarding the so-called relativistic effects-time dilation, mass increase, length decrease, as well as the energy of relativistic particles is shown. The presence of the clock paradox is shown by a simple example. The conclusion is made about the incorrectness of using mathematical transformations of Lorentz and the four-dimensional continuum in the physical representation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that simultaneity within an inertial frame is defined in relativity theory by a convention or definition. This definition leads to different simultaneities across inertial frames and the well-known principle of relativity of simultaneity. The lack of a universal present implies the existence of past, present, and future as a collection of events on a four-dimensional manifold or continuum wherein three dimensions are space like and one dimension is time like. However, such a continuum precludes the possibility of evolution of future from the present as all events exist "forever" so to speak on the continuum with the tenses past, present, and future merely being perceptions of different inertial frames. Such a far-reaching ontological concept, created by a mere convention, is yet to gain full acceptance. In this paper, we present arguments in favor of an absolute present, which means simultaneous events are simultaneous in all inertial frames, and subscribe to evolution of future from the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special theory of relativity (STR) is based on two apparently contradictory postulates: The equality of all physical laws in all inertial reference systems and the invariance of the speed of light (c). This results in counterintuitive conclusions, including time dilation, object length contraction (i.e., Lorentz contraction), and mass increase at relativistic speeds as well as the unification of mass and energy. Although the STR has been empirically confirmed, the ultimate cause of special relativity as well as the reason for the invariance of c and its actual value (2.99 x 108 m/s) remain unknown. We have recently postulated that a hypothetical displacement of the three-dimensional (3D) space where we live throughout a fourth spatial dimension, which would be the basis for time, is a requirement for the gravitational effects contemplated by the general theory of relativity. This tetra-dimensional model of the universe explains that the actual value of c equals the speed at which our 3D space displaces along the fourth dimension. It also explains time dilation, Lorentz contraction, Lorentz transformation, and mass increase at relativistic speeds, as well as the unification of mass and energy, as epiphenomena derived from the projection of the fourth dimension to our 3D space. We conclude that our universe model can intuitively explain special relativity as well as the reason for the invariance of c and its actual value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering that an Einstein clock can travel at a speed no greater than c, from the principle of relativity, a kinematic time dilation factor can be derived whose value cannot be greater than √2. In fact, however, the kinematic time dilation factor c can approach an infinite value. This discrepancy demonstrates that the derivation of the kinematic time dilation factor c in Einstein's special relativity (SR) cannot be physically justified by the principle of relativity, and that it is not physically possible that the speed of light is constant in any frame of reference. The mathematical method of Einstein's SR, which I refer to as the "mathematical method of relativity," allows the calculation of constant physical values from different quantities of any physical unit and is thus scientifically worthless. Accordingly, it is not surprising that it is possible to predict so-called general relativistic phenomena, e.g., the phenomena observed at the binary pulsar PSR B1913 + 16, just by applying Kepler's second law and simple quantum physical considerations [R. G. Ziefle, Phys. Essays 33, 99 (2020)]. A careful interpretation of interferometer experiments on Earth clearly shows that there is in fact no need for artificial time acceleration by length contraction. However, today's physicists seem to be lost in mathematics. The aim of this paper is to contribute to a physical theory of relativity that does not require mathematical tricks, such as time acceleration (length contraction), space-time curvature, and other mathematical tricks that follow from Einstein's mathematical methods and uphold the illusion that the belief in a constant speed of light c in any frame of reference is physically justified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of synchronization of spatially separated clocks in observing event coordinates cannot be overemphasized. We illustrate this with a real-world example. The results show the dependence of both length contraction and time dilation on the adopted synchronization convention. It is illustrated that a change in synchronization convention completely alters the appearance of the physical world. This is to be viewed in the context of the stated position in physics that synchronization of spatially separated clocks in any inertial frame depended on the adoption of a convention for its resolution. The preferred method of synchronization of spatially separated clocks is the standard convention recommended by the theory of relativity; however, it still remains a convention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers in standard gravity theory and cosmology seldom take into account Lorentz relativistic mass. The dismissal of Lorentz relativistic mass by the research community has happened without first properly investigating what predictions incorporating it in gravity models have led to. We show that the inclusion of Lorentz relativistic mass in some gravity theories has a dramatic impact on the predicted redshift from objects with high gravitational field such as stellar objects fitting the mathematical properties of black holes. Taking into account Lorentz relativistic mass provides diverse interpretations of quasars and many other objects. As relevant example, it may explain the lack of observed velocity time dilation in quasars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduce a standard Euclidean geometric model with a maximum speed c, which may help us understand why the speed of light c is the universe's maximum speed, why parameter c is a constant, and the geometric mechanism that causes time dilation and length contraction. Finally, based on this model, this paper will present a new coordinate transformation and general velocity addition formula. The new general velocity addition formula is not only consistent with the Michelson-Morley experiment but also consistent with the one-way speed of light experiment and the linear Sagnac experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is based on the following three premises: (1) Equality c = u with u = (-2U)1/2 as the total escape speed (from all the masses in the universe) and U the total gravitational potential; given a value of the universe mass, as shared by many physicists, u tends to c, hence constant on Earth. Moreover, the above equality implies the massiveness of light, which regards the second premise: (2) Structure of light: Longitudinal/sinusoidal particles, photons, moving along rays, having parameters k (their length) and frequency v (their number, of the same ray, flowing in a time unit); now, if photons and electron should have, at their impact, opposite direction, a circling electron could fall into its nucleus, hence the third premise. (3) A structure of the electron where its charge is not uniformly distributed, but it can be considered as a point particle fixed on the electron surface, facing the atom nucleus during the electron orbits; the electron charge corresponds to the photons-electron impact point, where photons are absorbed and released. Due to these structures, the photons-electron impacts will force the involved electron to move, with a radial velocity w, toward wider orbits. On these bases, and according to the classical mechanics laws, we found, but not limited to, these results: The measured speed of light, constant on Earth because of the equality #1, turns out to be also invariant whatever the relative motion observersource (of light) is: In short, during the interaction photons-electron, due to both the electron radial velocity and its Doppler effect, if the photons frequency decreases, then their length will increase (and vice versa) always inducing the invariant c. [The equality c = u has a cosmological reason: If c > u, all the visible masses, following the photons mass moving toward the infinity, would be dispersed from each other; if c < u all masses would collapse, while, for c = u, the photons mass (as well as neutrinos mass, as shown) will ensure an endless balance between dispersion and collapse.] The gravitational redshift and the claimed time dilation depend, like c, on the variation of the total potential. On H atom, the number of the electron circular orbits turns out to be n = 1, 2...137; the electron orbital speed along its ground-state (g-s) orbit becomes v1 = c/137, while the electron charge g-s orbital speed is vo = ac with a being the fine-structure constant. As for the claimed fall of circling electrons into their nucleus due to their supposed photons emission, we found that the circling electrons are emitting the previously absorbed photons only during the spiral path from higher toward lower orbits; this emission avoids their fall. Then we show that the compensation velocity (to restore the resonance source-detector located at different heights) has opposite direction with respect to the one predicted by relativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existence of an ether is confirmed by the detection of an ether wind, and a physics without dilation of time is described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Einstein was led astray by a physically incorrect calculation by Michelson and Morley in the context of the Michelson–Morley experiment. For the light beam in the horizontal light path, their calculation yields the claim that [(1 v/c) c] þ [(1 þ v/c) c] ¼ 2[(1 v² /c² ) c]. This is incorrect and mathematically increases the horizontal light path 2d0 by the factor [(1 þ v² /c² )], which Einstein’s theory of special relativity corrects by introducing the time dilation factor c and the length contraction factor 1/c. When we calculate correctly, the mathematical increase in the length of horizontal light path no longer happens and Einstein’s mathematical corrections of the horizontal light path imply an inconstancy of the speed of light. This means that Einstein’s special relativity is just a mathematical correction of a physical calculation error, not a true physical theory, and it was thus pure chance that Einstein found the physically real kinematic time dilation factor c. The null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment, along with the kinematic and gravitational time dilation, must instead be explained by a constant value for the speed c of light with respect to the gravitational potentials of predominant gravitational fields, resulting from the principles of minimum energy and energy conservation. On this basis, it becomes possible to predict so-called general relativistic phenomena, e.g., the precession of Mercury’s perihelion or the phenomena observed in the binary pulsar PSR B1913 þ 16, just by applying Kepler’s second law and simple quantum physical considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper shows how the miscalculated result of an experiment caused the birth of the theory of relativity. It reveals the error made by Michelson in his calculations to obtain the result of the experiment he performed with Morley, which was designed to detect the speed of the earth relative to ether. Thus, Michelson anticipated observing an outcome that understandably would not occur. This paper shows the correct calculations, proving that the very experiment that led to the invention of the theory of relativity can in fact be a proof that the theory is wrong. It also shows that as far as the existence of ether is concerned, the Michelson--Morley experiment is irrelevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of relativity (GTR) has proved to accurately describe all gravitational aspects of our universe. This theory was developed by Einstein under the premises of the principle of equivalence to describe the behavior of inertial systems in accelerated reference frames, but the physical basis for the principle of equivalence and for the existence of accelerated reference frames remains to be understood. Here, we postulate that the principle of equivalence could be explained in terms of an accelerated flow of space toward the origin of the gravitational field, which would explain the accelerated reference frames. We provide evidence that the gravitational constant predicts the observed increase in the Hubble constant from early to late universe. This suggests that gravity and accelerated expansion of the universe could derive from the same physical principle depending on the mass density operating in each process. Massinduced accelerated space expansion through a hypothetical fourth spatial dimension could explain the curvature of spacetime. It would be the projection of the expanded space to our threedimensional universe what would lead to relativistic gravitational effects such as time dilation, redshift, and black hole formation. Therefore, a gravitational theory can be envisioned, halfway between classical mechanics and GTR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of relativity extends the special theory of relativity to account for gravity (acceleration) and results in the postulation that matter curves spacetime, where gravitation is the embodiment of the spacetime curvature. The curvature of spacetime is modeled using Riemannian geometry. In this paper, it is proposed that matter rotates spacetime hyperbolically, rather than curves spacetime. As a result, gravitation is the embodiment of the hyperbolic rotation of spacetime. Regions in spacetime that have a larger magnitude of rotation relative to other regions of spacetime, ceteris paribus, experience stronger gravity, gravitational time dilation, gravitational length contraction, and gravitational frequency shift toward the red (blue) in the electromagnetic waves moving away (toward). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The physical mystery behind the constancy of the velocity of light is solved after the bias blind spot of Einstein's relativistic physics was illuminated precisely. We have given the physical law f¼c/k. The relative frequency shifts of the longitudinal Doppler effect are calculated from the frequency ratio of the frequency fr at the receiver and the frequency fe at the emitter. The very small frequency shift of the so-called relativistic time dilation factor can be neglected for low velocities. Comparing electromagnetic radiation, when receiver and emitter are at rest, the wavelengths must be the same and are canceling, so that we obtain: fr/fe¼(c/kr)/c/ke)¼c/c¼1/1. If the relative velocity c of light were constant in any inertial frame, independent of the motion of the receiver and emitter, no shift of wavelength and frequency would be possible. Einstein's special relativity excludes the possibility of the longitudinal Doppler effect. The longitudinal Doppler effect is explained according to relativity in dependence of gravity (RG), by which Einstein's illogical relativity is replaced. Why do we always measure the constant velocity c on Earth is now physically understandable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Einstein's special and general relativity are relics from before quantum physics. If forces are transmitted by quanta, this must also apply to gravity. As light consist of quanta, it is only logical that gravitational quanta interact with light. In my article "Cognitive bias in physics with respect to Einstein's relativity, demonstrated by the famous experiment of Pound and Rebka (1960), which in reality refutes Einstein's general relativity" [R. G. Ziefle, Phys. Essays 35, 91 (2022)], I could demonstrate that Einstein's "proper time" t0 does not refer to reference frames but to gravitational potentials. That is why "Newtonian quantum gravity" [R. G. Ziefle, Phys. Essays 33, 99 (2020)] can predict the correct curvature of a light beam at the surface of the Sun. Also, the phenomena observed at the binary pulsar PSR B1913þ16 can precisely be predicted by merely applying Kepler's second law. If gravitational quanta move away from masses with the constant speed c of light, this coincides with Einstein's postulate of a constant speed c of light with respect to reference frames, as a mass, such as a star or a planet, can also be defined as a reference frame. Therefore, Einstein's found by chance an artificial and complicated method to calculate changes in space-time caused by motion, which are in reality additional gravitational effects caused by the relative velocity between gravitational quanta emitted by masses and other masses or photons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inseparable realities result from the previous falsification of relativity and replacement of spacetime in two papers that (1) were previously published in this journal and (2) followed Einstein's 1954 speculations it is possible physics is based on a discontinuum theory, and the continuum concept along with space and time must be discarded. Using Einstein's equivalency strategy, a vacuum state with a zero net total energy and absolute-nothing are demonstrated to be equivalent. Einstein's general relativity must be replaced, because it was falsified by the first paper previously published in this journal and, in addition, it is a generalization of a falsified theory (i.e., special relativity).VC 2022 Physics Essays Publication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On Earth, we always measure the constant velocity c of electromagnetic radiation. Einstein assumed the velocity c of light to be constant in all inertial frames and developed his theory of special relativity by considering a light beam that moves back and forth, whereby he derived transformations between the coordinates of two reference frames: A moving reference frame represented by the coordinate system k and the coordinate system K that is at rest with respect to k. However, by applying Einstein's theory of relativity, with its postulates of relativistic time dilation and length contraction, to electromagnetic radiation that moves only in one direction, either in the direction of or in the opposite direction to a moving inertial frame, it is demonstrated that the constancy of the velocity c of light is not compatible with Einstein's theory of special relativity. It becomes obvious that Einstein's relativistic physics must be an unrealistic theory, and consequently, we need an alternative, nonrelativistic, explanation of the constancy of the velocity c of electromagnetic radiation measured on Earth, and for the special and general "relativistic" phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of the wave-particle dilemma is analyzed. It is found that this dilemma started much earlier than normally is assumed, by mistakes related to Michelson-Morley's tests. By regarding these mistakes, we find that a physics without quanta in light, and without time dilation, is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, Lorentz-type coordinates' transformations are proposed to connect the coordinates of an accelerating reference frame with the coordinates of a fixed one. Next, these transformations are applied to accelerating frames of constant acceleration. Finally, the Lorentz-type transformations are applied to the twin paradox, in an attempt to describe how the acceleration affects this phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Special relativity is a half-baked theory in which Lorentz transformation only considers the outbound or departing motion where speed and distance change in the same direction. This paper considers the inbound or approaching motion where speed and distance change in the opposite direction. This paper derived a new form of transformation along with the new Lorentz factor, according to which, in addition to well-known time dilation caused by outbound motion, there would be time contraction caused by inbound motion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The well-known wave property of destructive superposition can be used to explain continuous radiation from bound electrons in hydrogen, without quantized energy and quantum jumping. The wave model can be used to explain the most important phenomena in light, without quantization of light. The ether concept can be used to explain the cosmological red shift, without any need for using the Big Bang model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relative simultaneity predicted by special relativity is shown to be false. This is done by demonstrating inconsistency arising from this prediction. The well-known train-embankment thought experiment fails to demonstrate the phenomenon and global simultaneity as exists in the Global Positioning System invalidates the prediction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our mind seems to be formatted to imagine a "motionless" material particle (or more accurately a region of spacetime at rest relative to that material particle) fixed in space as an absolute reference and to consider the existence of space and time as independent universal entities, as we perceive when we measure them with a ruler and a clock, respectively. Instead, let us first hypothesize that singularities are the absolute reference for the universe, that the speed of light in vacuum (c = 299 792 458 m/s) is universal and absolute, and that deceleration/acceleration is the "driving force" that defines spacetime. Frames of reference anchored on material particles/objects may be grouped as having zero acceleration (inertial frames), nonzero, constant acceleration (pseudoinertial frames) or nonzero, variable acceleration (noninertial proper frames), so that a noninertial proper frame may be considered as composed of an infinite number of pseudoinertial frames. The universality of c is ensured by its absolute constancy, when both observer and moving beam of photons are in frames of reference differing neither in speed nor in acceleration, as is the case within inertial or pseudoinertial frames, respectively. However, its value (as that of any other speed) is measured as different when the observer is at an inertial or pseudoinertial frame and the beam of photons is moving in another, thus differing in Lorentz factor (c) or acceleration, respectively. Speed, velocity, and acceleration (including the effect of gravity on a material particle/object) are all defined in terms of space and time. However, space and time do not exist as independent universal entities, as they are integral components of one and the same inextricable physical entity, spacetime. Assuming spacetime forms a continuum, it is expected that anything affecting one will affect the other. This has been widely recognized for gravity, but not for speed--something which becomes clearer if we assume that it should in fact be acceleration/deceleration that moves a material particle from one frame of reference into another. Several conditions that are grouped under gravity-dependent and non-gravity-dependent act individually or in combination to submit a matter particle to acceleration. Therefore, when perceived from the Earth (or any other place at v < 299 792 458 m/s), any departure from c caused by deceleration should expand space and contract time. Any further deceleration or subsequent acceleration (for as long as v< c) will alter spacetime. Hence, in astrophysics, deceleration rather than acceleration should be the main driving or direct physical quantity. It is proposed that any deceleration/acceleration distorts spacetime. A method to combine the effects of several conditions that define the acceleration status of a material particle in spacetime is proposed. The higher v/c and/or gravity-dependent acceleration, the greater time dilation and space contraction will be. At the singularity, time dilation and space contraction will be maxima. The actual "position" of a material particle in spacetime may therefore be defined by the sum of all changes it suffered in deceleration/acceleration (due to changes in gravity-dependent and non-gravity-dependent accelerations) since the singularity. The impossibility of exceeding the speed of light in vacuum is discussed and tentatively demonstrated. In line with the present hypothesis, both time and space are relative, but only partially due to the limits imposed by c, opening the possibility for the concept of spacetime partial relativity. According to our proposal, spacetime is defined by a special form of deceleration, which we have termed relativistic or Lorentz deceleration: it is a decelerationdependent elastic property of any matter particle moving at v < c. It expands/contracts precisely because of the effect of deceleration/acceleration on matter particles moving at v < c. According to these views, defining a singularity should depend on the perspective. When perceived from the Earth or any other place at v < c, a singularity is a spaceless point of infinite density, associated with the speed of light and where a second lasts forever. However, when "perceived" from within a singularity, space is there and time flows. Based on this work, a singularity may be defined in higher detail as the embryonic state of the universe (or a part of it), associated with two universal absolute constants: the speed of photons (c = 299 792 458 m/s) and the quantity of spacetime. It also corresponds to a standard spacetime condition, in which time is dilated and space contracted to maximum values. The Big Bang is interpreted not as an explosion or bang, but rather as an infinitesimal deceleration from the singularity, thus triggering the initial exponential space expansion and time contraction and leading to matter formation. Neither space nor time are created or destroyed--They are always there since the singularity but vary widely in contraction/expansion magnitude with each precise spacetime condition, as deceleration-dependent fluctuations take place in spacetime. Gravity, an inherent property of matter, and entropy are key players in the subsequent evolution of the universe. Uncountable successive and cumulative changes in deceleration suffered by material particles determine the precise conditions they occupy at each moment in spacetime, thus allowing the build-up of a gigantic and highly dynamic noninertial frame of reference, i.e., our universe. Individual observers at single points of the universe should all see light photons moving in vacuum at 299 792 458 m/s (or any material particle/object moving at v < 299 792 458 m/s) and perceive space and time identically, each within their own spacetime condition. Differences arise only when one observer "looks" at other observers in distinct spacetime conditions. An attempt is made to interpret spacetime and light when we "look" at frames of reference distinct from our own, since this is precisely what we "see" when we observe the universe from the Earth. Cosmological models are typically based on several assumptions. The hypothesis formulated in the present article is no different, with a singularity as its major reference. We conceptualize on a cosmological model that challenges some currently accepted views of the universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We know that the Doppler effect (DE) is the difference between the frequency at which signals (or particles) leave a source and that at which they reach an observer, caused by relative motion. We also know that, based on the relationship of the frequency with wavelength, energy, and period, one can express the DE through these quantities. But, it is also very well-known relationship between frequency and time. Then, why modern physics fails to express the "time DE," i.e., the DE through time)? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asymmetrical time dilation in the Global Positioning System (GPS) invalidates the relativity principle of special relativity since it confirms the existence of a preferred frame that is prohibited by the principle. It also contradicts symmetrical time dilation predicted by special relativity [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Newtonian Quantum Gravity (NQG) unifies quantum physics with Newton's theory of gravity and calculates the so-called "general relativistic" phenomena more precisely and in a much simpler way than General Relativity, whose complicated theoretical construct is no longer needed. Newton's theory of gravity is less accurate than Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. Famous examples are the precise predictions of General Relativity at binary pulsars. This is the reason why relativistic physicists claim that there can be no doubt that Einstein's theory of relativity correctly describes our physical reality. With the example of the famous "Hulse-Taylor binary" (also known as PSR 1913 + 16 or PSR B1913 + 16), the author proves that the so-called "general relativistic phenomena" observed at this binary solar system can be calculated without having any knowledge on relativistic physics. According to philosophical and epistemological criteria, this should not be possible, if Einstein's theory of relativity indeed described our physical reality. Einstein obviously merely developed an alternative method to calculate these phenomena without quantum physics. The reason was that in those days quantum physics was not yet generally taken into account. It is not the first time that a lack of knowledge of the underlying physical phenomena has to be compensated by complicated mathematics. Einstein's theory of general relativity indirectly already includes additional quantum physical effects of gravitation. This is the reason why it cannot be possible to unite Einstein's theory of general relativity with quantum physics, unless one uses "mathematical tricks" that make the additional quantum physical effects disappear again in the end. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay considers that free-space appears to be composed of an energy field with characteristics of an elastic medium evenly dispersed across the Cosmos in an optimal high state of entropy. This spatial energy field or SEF has properties that may explain inertia and gravity. Linear and angular momentum appear to emerge from these properties. SEF is stretched and compressed in the presence of mass. In addition, compression of space by high inertial events slows the flow of time, similar to gravitational time dilation. This is presented as a new concept and called inertial time dilation. Also, it is proposed that the speed of light c is an intrinsic self-imposed limit due to characteristics of space (SEF) as exemplified by the physical constants eo and lo representing electric permittivity and magnetic permeability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of special and general relativity causes a "schizophrenic" dilemma in physics. It undeniably provides mathematically correct values, but it is undeniably epistemologically wrong in many respects. Including the relativistic explanation of the gravitational "time dilation" and the curvature of light beams at the surfaces of large masses, the author demonstrates the illogical character of relativistic physics. When one thinks the relativistic explanations of gravitational time dilatation and of the curvature of light rays by masses through to the end, they lead to absurd and contradictory logical conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We consider a thought experiment, equivalent to the Sagnac effect, where a light signal performs a round trip over a closed path. If special relativity (SR) adopts Einstein synchronization, the result of the experiment shows that the local light speed cannot be c in every section of the closed path. No inconsistencies are found when adopting absolute synchronization. Since Einstein and absolute synchronizations can be discriminated, the conventionality of the one-way speed of light holds no longer. Thus, as sustained by specialists, it might be a viable formulation of SR that reinstates the conservation of simultaneity, even though it allows for relativistic effects, such as time dilation. Such an approach may lead to the discovery of new effects and a better understanding of relativistic theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a fundamental and far-reaching criticism of the special theory of relativity. It aims to rescue the precious variable t from the artificial interpretation that Einstein gave it. Einstein defined a certain variable and called it time. I show that calling this variable time is extremely misleading. Instead I call it the Einstein clock variable, and I discuss the role of clocks in the scientific project of describing nature without using the word “time.” Einstein defines his clock variable as a fourth variable belonging to an inertial coordinate system. Each inertial coordinate system has its own instance of the Einstein clock variable, just as it has its own instances of three distance variables. A coordinate system’s instance of the Einstein clock variable is defined by a spatial array of indefinitely many clocks, all at rest relative to the object that anchors the coordinate system, and all coordinated with one another using a method that Einstein specifies. The key finding of this paper is that Einstein’s method of coordinating clocks results in a variable that has a nonzero spatial gradient. The value of the variable varies systematically with location, much as atmospheric pressure varies with altitude or the readings on clocks in airports around the world vary with time zone. All the sensational claims of the special theory of relativity, including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and the merging of space and time, use familiar words as redefined by Einstein to describe aspects of the relationship between two differently sloping instances of the Einstein clock variable. There is nothing in nature corresponding to any of these claims. The spatially sloping clock variable on which they are based is a thought-warping artifice that has no business in descriptions of nature. If physics is to be a natural science, this variable has no business in physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the experiments concerning time-dilation effects, physicists compare always only two atomic clocks, one that is stationary and one that moves or is within another position with respect to the gravitational potential. Using only two clocks, respectively, two physical states, the contradictions of relativistic physics are hidden. If more than two clocks are examined in an experiment, there result a lot of contradictions, as explained in the article. The presented empirical experiment proves that Einstein’s theory of relativity is wrong. According to epistemological criteria, the theory of relativity has therefore to be considered obsolete and has to be replaced by another theory that has not yet been falsified. To accept this is not easy because the theory of relativity provides quantitatively very correct values. These quantitative values entered into computers, allow a very good applicability in physics and astrophysics. But on the one hand computers do not ask whether the quantitative values used were conclusively derived and on the other hand most physicists do not question relativistic physics anymore because of its great successes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The observations of the M87 jet with the STIS instrument mounted on board the Hubble Space Telescope revealed that an outburst originating in the HST-1 knot occurred. Measuring the dimensions of the outburst in the epochs between 2001 July 30 and 2003 July 27 and correcting for optical illusion an expansion velocity v/c = 0.99893 ± 0.00007 is found. However, the relativistic model fails to correctly predict the dimensions of the source and the outburst brightness. For this reason, as the apparent motion suggests, a superluminal mechanical model where even the light rays travel faster than light is introduced. By applying this model to correct for optical illusion an expansion velocity v/c = 21.8 ± 0.7 is found along with reasonable source dimensions and brightness. This result, the study of the apparent motion of features in the M87 jet and the time-of-flight measurements of muonic neutrinos seem to confirm the possibility to travel faster than light. That does not imply a refusal of special relativity. Instead only the common interpretations of it are refused. Without them, we will also see that the so-called twin paradox does not have any reason to exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A very simple, fundamental physical explanation is presented of time dilation and length contraction. This explanation is obtained from a classical model of physics that is Galilean. It assumes the existence of a medium (ether) that acts as an absolute reference in accordance with Mach's principle. Time and space are conventional, i.e., a three-dimensional space independent of time. In addition, the explanation relies on the assumption that all physics, including matter such as clocks and measuring rods, has a scalar wave structure. Matter is assumed to consist of locally stable scalar wave structures, specifically scalar standing wave structures. The scalar waves are just variations in space and time of medium density. Also, an element of special relativity is used, namely, the one taking into account the finite velocity of light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The General Theory of Relativity (GR) and the Dynamic Universe (DU) are evaluated in how they explain frequencies of atomic clocks. DU and GR predict the frequencies with equal accuracy, but their explanations, the postulates they apply in the explanations and the word-views that come along with them are entirely different. The central argument is that if unified and understandable physics is appreciated, then DU deserves to be taken as a viable alternative to GR. In GR different frequencies of identical atomic clocks are explained by letting rates of the flow of time in their frames of reference vary as functions of the clocks' states of motion and gravitation. The GRbased world-view is nonunderstandable because GR violates absolute simultaneity, and disunified because quantum mechanics is built on different postulates than GR. In DU different frequencies of identical atomic clocks are explained by letting their frequencies vary as functions of their states of motion and gravitation. As DU commits to absolute simultaneity and as the postulates of DU suffice as the ontological ground of quantum mechanics at least partially, DU provides an understandable and unified scientific world-view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses two important relativistic derivations of the Sagnac effect available in the literature. In both cases, it is shown that these two methods also predict anisotropic light speeds that are inconsistent with the principle of light speed constancy required to hold in the comoving inertial frame on a rotating platform. We refer to Selleri's work for a consistent derivation of the effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Lorentz transformation may involve the changes in a three-dimensional fixed reference frame when given a constant boost velocity v in a moving reference frame as measured by an observer in a specified fixed reference frame. A Lorentz transformation may also involve changes in the size and shape of a material object when given a constant boost velocity v in a moving (Galilean) reference frame as measured by an observer in a specified fixed reference frame receiving light signals along the straight axis of a connecting ether rope. The mass of the flux of primordial fluid moving with a boost velocity is increased by the Lorentz gamma factor so that the measured time is reduced by the factor gamma. This is known as time dilation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While space is measured directly, time is measured indirectly through an event. In general, we use a periodic event to measure time. We only need to count the number of periods between the starting point and the ending point of the event. In other words, we measure time through frequency. To investigate whether time dilates at a speed approaching light speed, it is convenient, to study the behavior of periodic events at such a high speed. In the present paper, we discuss time dilation by means of thought experiments (in German: Gedankenexperimente) involving periodic events occurring aboard a spaceship traveling at a speed approaching the speed of light. We conclude that the two postulates of Special Relativity simply cannot coexist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An inertial observation system is composed of the world lines of observers moving with the same constant velocity. In contrast, the coordinate system of a single observer, which is referred to as an inertial frame, represents the world that the observer sees, and inertial frames are related by the Lorentz transformation (LT). The coordinate transformation between inertial observation systems is presented, which is derived based on the LT reformulated in a complex Euclidean space where the time components are represented by complex numbers. In the derived transformation, the one-way speed of light is anisotropic, though the two-way speed is isotropic, and absolute simultaneity is shown. In special relativity, according to the principle of relativity, inertial frames are regarded as equivalent. However, it is shown in this paper that the equivalence of inertial frames is inconsistent with the absoluteness of proper times invariant from frame to frame. There is a hidden factor in the relationship of time in LT which is not seen under the equivalence of inertial frames. The hidden factor is a correction factor which correctly makes the relationship between proper times in inertial frames. When the correction factor is taken into account, the equivalence no longer holds. The correction factor implies the existence of a preferred reference frame. The anisotropy of the space-time spaces of inertial observation systems does not mean that exact physical quantities cannot be obtained from LT. One can use LT together with the standard synchronization, but with its exact meaning, to find proper times, for example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time dilation is one of the consequences of special relativity (SR) or the special theory of relativity. For one given object (or person), time flows slower the faster the object travels. The object is traveling inside a system, whether the universe, the given galaxy, the solar system or even a smaller system. We will have two worlds: the world of the fast-moving object and another world, namely, the rest, of the system, which is observed by the moving object as stationary. We may consider them as two worlds, since each has its own time running differently. Since one world is included in the other, both worlds interact with each other in many aspects, including energy, flow of material, pressure, and temperature to name few. Since energy (just like temperature and the flow of material) depends on time, the situation gives birth to a number of paradoxes. During the interaction between both worlds, which time should we refer to and, therefore, which energy, flow of material and temperature should we consider? Should we consider the time of World 1 (the fast, moving object) or that of World 2 (the relatively stationary environment or system)? The present article illustrates these paradoxes through thought experiments and scenarios. In the end, we should either (1) find an explanation to these paradoxes within the framework of SR, (2) modify some aspects of SR or add more postulates to cover these paradoxes, or (3) abandon SR if neither (1) nor (2) is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rate of an atomic clock is influenced simultaneously by gravitational acceleration and by velocity. Discrete coordinates are necessary to register an acceleration and continuous coordinates for a velocity. Wave functions are only continuous so they lack the minimum number of independent coordinates/degrees of freedom necessary to describe atomic structure. The unobserved coordinates are restored in a relativistically correct theory proposed here; discrete coordinates are assigned to emission and absorption events on electron shells, and continuous coordinates are assigned to electron transitions between events. Instead of orbitals in a planetary model of the atom, there are surfaces in an electron shell model. Entanglement is explained by locally defined field boundaries, and wave function collapse is due to the recovery of discrete coordinates required by the equivalence principle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The twin paradox is one of the most fascinating paradoxes in physics. In special relativity, the paradox arises due to the nonexistence of a preferred frame of reference, resulting in both twins observing that he or she is younger than the other twin. Nonetheless, it is commonly agreed that the "traveling" twin returns younger than the "staying" twin. The prevailing solution is obtained by deviating from the relativity principle and assuming that the "staying" twin's frame is preferred over the "traveling" twin's frame. Here, I describe a newly proposed relativity theory, termed information relativity, and show that it solves the twin paradox symmetrically, with the twins aging equally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses logic as its basis. It examines the nature of time from two perspectives: Time as it is perceived and time as it exists when it is not (or cannot be) perceived. Einstein's first postulate does not address time that is not perceived. Einstein's second postulate defines the speed of light to be a constant which is the same for all observers; thus the speed of light does not depend on the frame of reference from which it is perceived. The implication of this difference is that, according to special relativity, the nature of perceived time is not the same as the nature of time that is not perceived. This article assumes that, just as matter can be subdivided into perceived reality and physical reality, time can also be subdivided into the time we perceive (perceived time) and the time we cannot perceive (physical time). Physical time must have characteristics that do not depend on perception. In physical time, all events occur during "Now." Now occurs simultaneously throughout the universe. It is synchronized, and is a constant whose duration is a Planck time, which in this article is termed a "tick." Absolute time exists and consists of a continuous, never ending sequence of ticks. Time dilation is also an aspect of physical time. The faster an object travels through space, the less it ages. Since time dilation is caused by the speed a particle moves through space, this article proposes that time dilation results from whether, during now, a particle moves through space or moves through time. The "decision" as to which choice is selected is based on probability, namely, the speed of the particle divided by the speed of light. This implies that the speed of an object through space should be thought of as a probability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper finds that the time of the special theory of relativity (STR) is no longer the physical time measured by physical clocks. In fact, a clock can never measure time directly; it can only record the status of a physical process during a period of time, such as the number of cycles of an oscillatory mechanism, which is the product of time and oscillation frequency. After a Lorentz transformation from a moving inertial reference frame to a stationary inertial reference frame, the time in the moving frame is dilated by a factor y, but the frequency of a clock in the moving frame decreases by the same factor y, leaving the resulting product (i.e., the time displayed by the moving clock) unchanged. In other words, the time displayed by any physical clock is invariant with respect to Lorentz transformation, unlike the time of the STR. It is a mistake to use the properties of time in the STR to predict time dilation for physical clocks or any other physical process. Based on the Lorentz invariance of clock time, we can prove that within the framework of the STR, our Earth-based standard physical time is absolute, universal, and independent of the inertial reference frame. The existence of such an absolute and universal clock time is confirmed by the universal synchronization of all ground and satellite clocks of the global positioning system and by the theoretical existence of the absolute and universal Galilean time within the framework of the STR. We can further prove that in the STR, the time dilation and length contraction of a moving inertial reference frame observed from a stationary inertial reference frame are pure illusions. Moreover, in the STR, the real speed of light still exists and follows Newton's velocity-addition formula, which directly falsifies the postulate of the STR that the speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. All these findings lead us to question the validity of the STR as a theory of physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The speed of light is observed differently depending on the observer's velocity. Therefore, the Lorentz contraction cannot be derived; the length contraction is unnecessary in physics. Time dilation has been experimentally confirmed. Using Einstein and Feynman light clock, we show that the Lorentz time dilation is derived in Fresnel's ether. The Galilean transformation with Lorentz time dilation is introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our interpretation of the Galilean transformation has been incorrect. This error was carried forward by Einstein, who incorporated it into his theory of relativity. This resulted in the derivation of a theorem stating "time in an inertial frame, which is in motion at a constant velocity with respect to an observer in a static reference frame, lags behind the time in the static system." The twin paradox is a result of this theorem. Our interpretation of the Galilean transformation, which has been erroneous until now, is herein corrected. The present paper provides a correct interpretation of the theory of relativity, and the twin paradox is resolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]