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The escape speed from one point-mass M1 is u1 = (--2U1)'=2 with U1 (= --M1G/s1) the (Newtonian) gravitational potential energy and s1 the distance between M1 and a chosen point. Observing that the escape speed, from two or more masses, increases, the total escape speed (i.e., from all the masses in universe) becomes u = (--2U)'=2, with U the total potential (energy), which is related, as shown, to the universe mass MU: According to many authors, Mu « 1053kg, and, on these bases, we found, on Earth, u ! c, so we assumed c = u. This equality implies the massiveness of the light, and because of its two related parameters, k and v, we inferred that the light has to be composed of longitudinal massive particles, photons (each one having length k), moving, along rays (succession of photons along the same direction), toward infinity with speed c (function of U), while their frequency v turns out to be their number, of the same ray, flowing in time unit. These particles, due to their speed and mass, have a momentum, and therefore, if photons and a circling electron should have, at their impact, opposite direction, the electron could fall into its nucleus; hence, the electron should have a different structure, where its charge is not uniformly distributed, whereas it can be considered as a point particle, fixed on the electron surface, facing the atom nucleus during the electron orbits, while the electron charge turns out to be the photons-electron impact point, where photons are absorbed and released. Due to this electron structure, the incident photons always force the impacting circling electron to move, with a radial velocity w (function of the incident photons frequency) toward wider orbits. On these bases, during these impacts, the electron becomes the source of re-emitted photons; hence, because of the Doppler effect involving both the incident photons and the recoiled electron, the frequency of the re-emitted photons decreases, while their length (due to the electron radial velocity w lasting as long as the interaction time T) increases by the value wT, inducing the invariance of the speed of light, despite any relative motion observer-source; we also found this invariance (which regards the interaction light-matter only) through the conservation of energy of the incident photons. Regarding the claimed time dilation, which occurs between two atomic clocks (ACs) at different potential U (e.g., at different altitude on Earth), it is shown that any variation DU implies a variation Dc, and, contemporarily, since the ACs are sources of photons at a given frequency on Earth, DU gives a variation of the ACs frequency Dv, hence of their ticking time T = 1/v, and therefore a variation of their counted time. Finally, the equality c = u implies a cosmological reason regarding an endless balance between collapse and dispersion of the universe masses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that simultaneity within an inertial frame is defined in relativity theory by a convention or definition. This definition leads to different simultaneities across inertial frames and the well-known principle of relativity of simultaneity. The lack of a universal present implies the existence of past, present, and future as a collection of events on a four-dimensional manifold or continuum wherein three dimensions are space like and one dimension is time like. However, such a continuum precludes the possibility of evolution of future from the present as all events exist "forever" so to speak on the continuum with the tenses past, present, and future merely being perceptions of different inertial frames. Such a far-reaching ontological concept, created by a mere convention, is yet to gain full acceptance. In this paper, we present arguments in favor of an absolute present, which means simultaneous events are simultaneous in all inertial frames, and subscribe to evolution of future from the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers in standard gravity theory and cosmology seldom take into account Lorentz relativistic mass. The dismissal of Lorentz relativistic mass by the research community has happened without first properly investigating what predictions incorporating it in gravity models have led to. We show that the inclusion of Lorentz relativistic mass in some gravity theories has a dramatic impact on the predicted redshift from objects with high gravitational field such as stellar objects fitting the mathematical properties of black holes. Taking into account Lorentz relativistic mass provides diverse interpretations of quasars and many other objects. As relevant example, it may explain the lack of observed velocity time dilation in quasars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Einstein's special and general relativity are relics from before quantum physics. If forces are transmitted by quanta, this must also apply to gravity. As light consist of quanta, it is only logical that gravitational quanta interact with light. In my article "Cognitive bias in physics with respect to Einstein's relativity, demonstrated by the famous experiment of Pound and Rebka (1960), which in reality refutes Einstein's general relativity" [R. G. Ziefle, Phys. Essays 35, 91 (2022)], I could demonstrate that Einstein's "proper time" t0 does not refer to reference frames but to gravitational potentials. That is why "Newtonian quantum gravity" [R. G. Ziefle, Phys. Essays 33, 99 (2020)] can predict the correct curvature of a light beam at the surface of the Sun. Also, the phenomena observed at the binary pulsar PSR B1913þ16 can precisely be predicted by merely applying Kepler's second law. If gravitational quanta move away from masses with the constant speed c of light, this coincides with Einstein's postulate of a constant speed c of light with respect to reference frames, as a mass, such as a star or a planet, can also be defined as a reference frame. Therefore, Einstein's found by chance an artificial and complicated method to calculate changes in space-time caused by motion, which are in reality additional gravitational effects caused by the relative velocity between gravitational quanta emitted by masses and other masses or photons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reciprocal length contraction and time dilation, as enshrined in the Lorentz transformation, are the bulwark of the special relativity theory. Reciprocal time dilation is typically discussed (in the context of its apparent contradiction) and usually explained away as the result of differing synchronization in inertial reference frames and the relativity of simultaneity. Further, it is generally suggested that time is an abstract concept, and its perceptions may differ with context. However, we suggest that regarding length measurements no such abstraction can be envisaged. In this manuscript, we examine the reciprocal length contraction in detail to assess whether it leads to any contradiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The explanation of Einstein’s special theory of relativity in his original 1905 paper is examined. His analysis is confusing, as terms x, y, z, t, etc., have different meanings at various points, and he presents equations based on different and inconsistent assumptions. Adding subscripts clarifies these issues but exposes errors in his reasoning. To calculate his transformation equations, he selects a combination of equations which gives results matching the Lorentz transformation but he ignores other possible valid solutions. Also his calculations contain serious errors. Therefore, he fails to prove that his theory leads to the Lorentz equations as a unique solution. Einstein’s analysis includes “moving” clocks which show “stationary” time t, so the idea that a moving clock should run slower than a stationary clock is incompatible with his theory. Also, his calculation of time dilation contains serious errors. As a result, he fails to provide a theoretical justification for his famous “clocks paradox.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is devoted to the criticism of the wave-particle dualism and the provisions of the special theory of relativity (SRT). The fallacy of accepting the extended principle of relativity and identifying particles and waves is shown. The substantiation is given that the own fields of physical objects, which are material substances and spatially connect physical objects with each other, are the medium of propagation of light waves. The causal and visual picture of the propagation of light waves is considered, and the features of the mechanism of their propagation in comparison with other types of waves are described. On the basis of an alternative method for obtaining the relativistic law of velocities addition, the inconsistency of the principle of invariance of the interval adopted in the framework of SRT is shown. The inconsistency of the SRT positions and conclusions regarding the so-called relativistic effects-time dilation, mass increase, length decrease, as well as the energy of relativistic particles is shown. The presence of the clock paradox is shown by a simple example. The conclusion is made about the incorrectness of using mathematical transformations of Lorentz and the four-dimensional continuum in the physical representation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A very simple, fundamental physical explanation is presented of time dilation and length contraction. This explanation is obtained from a classical model of physics that is Galilean. It assumes the existence of a medium (ether) that acts as an absolute reference in accordance with Mach's principle. Time and space are conventional, i.e., a three-dimensional space independent of time. In addition, the explanation relies on the assumption that all physics, including matter such as clocks and measuring rods, has a scalar wave structure. Matter is assumed to consist of locally stable scalar wave structures, specifically scalar standing wave structures. The scalar waves are just variations in space and time of medium density. Also, an element of special relativity is used, namely, the one taking into account the finite velocity of light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of synchronization of spatially separated clocks in observing event coordinates cannot be overemphasized. We illustrate this with a real-world example. The results show the dependence of both length contraction and time dilation on the adopted synchronization convention. It is illustrated that a change in synchronization convention completely alters the appearance of the physical world. This is to be viewed in the context of the stated position in physics that synchronization of spatially separated clocks in any inertial frame depended on the adoption of a convention for its resolution. The preferred method of synchronization of spatially separated clocks is the standard convention recommended by the theory of relativity; however, it still remains a convention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Lorentz transformation may involve the changes in a three-dimensional fixed reference frame when given a constant boost velocity v in a moving reference frame as measured by an observer in a specified fixed reference frame. A Lorentz transformation may also involve changes in the size and shape of a material object when given a constant boost velocity v in a moving (Galilean) reference frame as measured by an observer in a specified fixed reference frame receiving light signals along the straight axis of a connecting ether rope. The mass of the flux of primordial fluid moving with a boost velocity is increased by the Lorentz gamma factor so that the measured time is reduced by the factor gamma. This is known as time dilation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this paper, it has been shown that some experimental confirmations for the so-called "time dilation effect" may be in a rational way explained on the basis of a thought experiment presented in a previous paper [J. Drozdzynski, Phys. Essays 26, 321 (2013)]. The performed analysis has proven, that in order to carry out a round trip of a laser pulse from the source to a perpendicular located mirror and back to the starting point, the laser source in motion of the spaceship with a constant speed must be pointed at an angle in the direction of movement; whereas at rest it should be directed perpendicular to that axis. This means, that we have not to deal with a "time dilation effect" but with two separate measurements of two separate laser signals, moving at two different distances. The ratio of the two time intervals is expressed by a somewhat different equation as stated by the Special Theory Relativity and possesses also a dissimilar meaning. It has been shown also that it can be evaluated by the observer in motion by himself as well as that the phenomenon of a reiativistic length contraction does not exist. On this basis, a quantitative relation between time intervals of such oscillations in two reference frames, which are in motion with a different speed with respect to the frame at absolute rest, has been received. The relation may be of some significance for the Global Positioning System (GPS). A rational explanation of the "moving clocks" experiments as well as the "time dilation effect" of muons is presented. The existence of "paradoxes," resulting from Special Relativity has been excluded. A new elucidation of the null result in the Michelson-Morley experiment is presented. The analysis was based on classical physics and is giving additional evidence for the erroneousness of the principle of relativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduce a standard Euclidean geometric model with a maximum speed c, which may help us understand why the speed of light c is the universe's maximum speed, why parameter c is a constant, and the geometric mechanism that causes time dilation and length contraction. Finally, based on this model, this paper will present a new coordinate transformation and general velocity addition formula. The new general velocity addition formula is not only consistent with the Michelson-Morley experiment but also consistent with the one-way speed of light experiment and the linear Sagnac experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The light clock thought experiment can be shown to yield time contraction results. Consequently, two synchronous light clocks placed inside a space ship in uniform motion can simultaneously yield, from another frame, dilation and contraction of time, respectively. Based on these absurd results, we conclude that time dilation is not real or, at least, the light clock thought experiment cannot be used to infer time dilation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The speed of light is observed differently depending on the observer's velocity. Therefore, the Lorentz contraction cannot be derived; the length contraction is unnecessary in physics. Time dilation has been experimentally confirmed. Using Einstein and Feynman light clock, we show that the Lorentz time dilation is derived in Fresnel's ether. The Galilean transformation with Lorentz time dilation is introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The general theory of relativity (GTR) has proved to accurately describe all gravitational aspects of our universe. This theory was developed by Einstein under the premises of the principle of equivalence to describe the behavior of inertial systems in accelerated reference frames, but the physical basis for the principle of equivalence and for the existence of accelerated reference frames remains to be understood. Here, we postulate that the principle of equivalence could be explained in terms of an accelerated flow of space toward the origin of the gravitational field, which would explain the accelerated reference frames. We provide evidence that the gravitational constant predicts the observed increase in the Hubble constant from early to late universe. This suggests that gravity and accelerated expansion of the universe could derive from the same physical principle depending on the mass density operating in each process. Massinduced accelerated space expansion through a hypothetical fourth spatial dimension could explain the curvature of spacetime. It would be the projection of the expanded space to our threedimensional universe what would lead to relativistic gravitational effects such as time dilation, redshift, and black hole formation. Therefore, a gravitational theory can be envisioned, halfway between classical mechanics and GTR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existence of an ether is confirmed by the detection of an ether wind, and a physics without dilation of time is described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of the wave-particle dilemma is analyzed. It is found that this dilemma started much earlier than normally is assumed, by mistakes related to Michelson-Morley's tests. By regarding these mistakes, we find that a physics without quanta in light, and without time dilation, is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of relativity extends the special theory of relativity to account for gravity (acceleration) and results in the postulation that matter curves spacetime, where gravitation is the embodiment of the spacetime curvature. The curvature of spacetime is modeled using Riemannian geometry. In this paper, it is proposed that matter rotates spacetime hyperbolically, rather than curves spacetime. As a result, gravitation is the embodiment of the hyperbolic rotation of spacetime. Regions in spacetime that have a larger magnitude of rotation relative to other regions of spacetime, ceteris paribus, experience stronger gravity, gravitational time dilation, gravitational length contraction, and gravitational frequency shift toward the red (blue) in the electromagnetic waves moving away (toward). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asymmetrical time dilation in the Global Positioning System (GPS) invalidates the relativity principle of special relativity since it confirms the existence of a preferred frame that is prohibited by the principle. It also contradicts symmetrical time dilation predicted by special relativity [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the special theory of relativity (STR), when the velocity of a moving body increases, the length of the body contracts in the direction of motion, and the passage of time slows down in its coordinate system. This conclusion can be derived from the equations of the Lorentz transformation. Inside the atom, however, potential energy must be taken into account, and the equations of the Lorentz transformation cannot be applied. In situations where the transformation equations newly derived by the author can be applied, if the velocity of a moving body increases, then the body elongates in the direction of motion, and the passage of time speeds up in its coordinate system. At the same time, the relativistic energy and mass of the body decrease. In the special theory of relativity, it is the relative velocity between the stationary frame and moving frame which determines length in the direction of motion of the moving body, and the tempo of the time which passes in the body's coordinate system. However, this paper rejects the claim that relativistic velocity is the factor which determines the body's length and the time which passes. Instead it concludes that the true cause is the ratio of the body's rest mass energy and relativistic energy--a ratio which varies as the velocity of the moving body increases and decreases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Special relativity is a half-baked theory in which Lorentz transformation only considers the outbound or departing motion where speed and distance change in the same direction. This paper considers the inbound or approaching motion where speed and distance change in the opposite direction. This paper derived a new form of transformation along with the new Lorentz factor, according to which, in addition to well-known time dilation caused by outbound motion, there would be time contraction caused by inbound motion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our mind seems to be formatted to imagine a "motionless" material particle (or more accurately a region of spacetime at rest relative to that material particle) fixed in space as an absolute reference and to consider the existence of space and time as independent universal entities, as we perceive when we measure them with a ruler and a clock, respectively. Instead, let us first hypothesize that singularities are the absolute reference for the universe, that the speed of light in vacuum (c = 299 792 458 m/s) is universal and absolute, and that deceleration/acceleration is the "driving force" that defines spacetime. Frames of reference anchored on material particles/objects may be grouped as having zero acceleration (inertial frames), nonzero, constant acceleration (pseudoinertial frames) or nonzero, variable acceleration (noninertial proper frames), so that a noninertial proper frame may be considered as composed of an infinite number of pseudoinertial frames. The universality of c is ensured by its absolute constancy, when both observer and moving beam of photons are in frames of reference differing neither in speed nor in acceleration, as is the case within inertial or pseudoinertial frames, respectively. However, its value (as that of any other speed) is measured as different when the observer is at an inertial or pseudoinertial frame and the beam of photons is moving in another, thus differing in Lorentz factor (c) or acceleration, respectively. Speed, velocity, and acceleration (including the effect of gravity on a material particle/object) are all defined in terms of space and time. However, space and time do not exist as independent universal entities, as they are integral components of one and the same inextricable physical entity, spacetime. Assuming spacetime forms a continuum, it is expected that anything affecting one will affect the other. This has been widely recognized for gravity, but not for speed--something which becomes clearer if we assume that it should in fact be acceleration/deceleration that moves a material particle from one frame of reference into another. Several conditions that are grouped under gravity-dependent and non-gravity-dependent act individually or in combination to submit a matter particle to acceleration. Therefore, when perceived from the Earth (or any other place at v < 299 792 458 m/s), any departure from c caused by deceleration should expand space and contract time. Any further deceleration or subsequent acceleration (for as long as v< c) will alter spacetime. Hence, in astrophysics, deceleration rather than acceleration should be the main driving or direct physical quantity. It is proposed that any deceleration/acceleration distorts spacetime. A method to combine the effects of several conditions that define the acceleration status of a material particle in spacetime is proposed. The higher v/c and/or gravity-dependent acceleration, the greater time dilation and space contraction will be. At the singularity, time dilation and space contraction will be maxima. The actual "position" of a material particle in spacetime may therefore be defined by the sum of all changes it suffered in deceleration/acceleration (due to changes in gravity-dependent and non-gravity-dependent accelerations) since the singularity. The impossibility of exceeding the speed of light in vacuum is discussed and tentatively demonstrated. In line with the present hypothesis, both time and space are relative, but only partially due to the limits imposed by c, opening the possibility for the concept of spacetime partial relativity. According to our proposal, spacetime is defined by a special form of deceleration, which we have termed relativistic or Lorentz deceleration: it is a decelerationdependent elastic property of any matter particle moving at v < c. It expands/contracts precisely because of the effect of deceleration/acceleration on matter particles moving at v < c. According to these views, defining a singularity should depend on the perspective. When perceived from the Earth or any other place at v < c, a singularity is a spaceless point of infinite density, associated with the speed of light and where a second lasts forever. However, when "perceived" from within a singularity, space is there and time flows. Based on this work, a singularity may be defined in higher detail as the embryonic state of the universe (or a part of it), associated with two universal absolute constants: the speed of photons (c = 299 792 458 m/s) and the quantity of spacetime. It also corresponds to a standard spacetime condition, in which time is dilated and space contracted to maximum values. The Big Bang is interpreted not as an explosion or bang, but rather as an infinitesimal deceleration from the singularity, thus triggering the initial exponential space expansion and time contraction and leading to matter formation. Neither space nor time are created or destroyed--They are always there since the singularity but vary widely in contraction/expansion magnitude with each precise spacetime condition, as deceleration-dependent fluctuations take place in spacetime. Gravity, an inherent property of matter, and entropy are key players in the subsequent evolution of the universe. Uncountable successive and cumulative changes in deceleration suffered by material particles determine the precise conditions they occupy at each moment in spacetime, thus allowing the build-up of a gigantic and highly dynamic noninertial frame of reference, i.e., our universe. Individual observers at single points of the universe should all see light photons moving in vacuum at 299 792 458 m/s (or any material particle/object moving at v < 299 792 458 m/s) and perceive space and time identically, each within their own spacetime condition. Differences arise only when one observer "looks" at other observers in distinct spacetime conditions. An attempt is made to interpret spacetime and light when we "look" at frames of reference distinct from our own, since this is precisely what we "see" when we observe the universe from the Earth. Cosmological models are typically based on several assumptions. The hypothesis formulated in the present article is no different, with a singularity as its major reference. We conceptualize on a cosmological model that challenges some currently accepted views of the universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This essay considers that free-space appears to be composed of an energy field with characteristics of an elastic medium evenly dispersed across the Cosmos in an optimal high state of entropy. This spatial energy field or SEF has properties that may explain inertia and gravity. Linear and angular momentum appear to emerge from these properties. SEF is stretched and compressed in the presence of mass. In addition, compression of space by high inertial events slows the flow of time, similar to gravitational time dilation. This is presented as a new concept and called inertial time dilation. Also, it is proposed that the speed of light c is an intrinsic self-imposed limit due to characteristics of space (SEF) as exemplified by the physical constants eo and lo representing electric permittivity and magnetic permeability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this paper, Lorentz-type coordinates' transformations are proposed to connect the coordinates of an accelerating reference frame with the coordinates of a fixed one. Next, these transformations are applied to accelerating frames of constant acceleration. Finally, the Lorentz-type transformations are applied to the twin paradox, in an attempt to describe how the acceleration affects this phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of special and general relativity causes a "schizophrenic" dilemma in physics. It undeniably provides mathematically correct values, but it is undeniably epistemologically wrong in many respects. Including the relativistic explanation of the gravitational "time dilation" and the curvature of light beams at the surfaces of large masses, the author demonstrates the illogical character of relativistic physics. When one thinks the relativistic explanations of gravitational time dilatation and of the curvature of light rays by masses through to the end, they lead to absurd and contradictory logical conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We consider a thought experiment, equivalent to the Sagnac effect, where a light signal performs a round trip over a closed path. If special relativity (SR) adopts Einstein synchronization, the result of the experiment shows that the local light speed cannot be c in every section of the closed path. No inconsistencies are found when adopting absolute synchronization. Since Einstein and absolute synchronizations can be discriminated, the conventionality of the one-way speed of light holds no longer. Thus, as sustained by specialists, it might be a viable formulation of SR that reinstates the conservation of simultaneity, even though it allows for relativistic effects, such as time dilation. Such an approach may lead to the discovery of new effects and a better understanding of relativistic theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a fundamental and far-reaching criticism of the special theory of relativity. It aims to rescue the precious variable t from the artificial interpretation that Einstein gave it. Einstein defined a certain variable and called it time. I show that calling this variable time is extremely misleading. Instead I call it the Einstein clock variable, and I discuss the role of clocks in the scientific project of describing nature without using the word “time.” Einstein defines his clock variable as a fourth variable belonging to an inertial coordinate system. Each inertial coordinate system has its own instance of the Einstein clock variable, just as it has its own instances of three distance variables. A coordinate system’s instance of the Einstein clock variable is defined by a spatial array of indefinitely many clocks, all at rest relative to the object that anchors the coordinate system, and all coordinated with one another using a method that Einstein specifies. The key finding of this paper is that Einstein’s method of coordinating clocks results in a variable that has a nonzero spatial gradient. The value of the variable varies systematically with location, much as atmospheric pressure varies with altitude or the readings on clocks in airports around the world vary with time zone. All the sensational claims of the special theory of relativity, including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and the merging of space and time, use familiar words as redefined by Einstein to describe aspects of the relationship between two differently sloping instances of the Einstein clock variable. There is nothing in nature corresponding to any of these claims. The spatially sloping clock variable on which they are based is a thought-warping artifice that has no business in descriptions of nature. If physics is to be a natural science, this variable has no business in physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Physics Essays is the property of Physics Essays Publication and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The observations of the M87 jet with the STIS instrument mounted on board the Hubble Space Telescope revealed that an outburst originating in the HST-1 knot occurred. Measuring the dimensions of the outburst in the epochs between 2001 July 30 and 2003 July 27 and correcting for optical illusion an expansion velocity v/c = 0.99893 ± 0.00007 is found. However, the relativistic model fails to correctly predict the dimensions of the source and the outburst brightness. For this reason, as the apparent motion suggests, a superluminal mechanical model where even the light rays travel faster than light is introduced. By applying this model to correct for optical illusion an expansion velocity v/c = 21.8 ± 0.7 is found along with reasonable source dimensions and brightness. This result, the study of the apparent motion of features in the M87 jet and the time-of-flight measurements of muonic neutrinos seem to confirm the possibility to travel faster than light. That does not imply a refusal of special relativity. Instead only the common interpretations of it are refused. Without them, we will also see that the so-called twin paradox does not have any reason to exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]