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What does it mean to have a learning difficulty? In this chapter we will consider the various learning difficulties that some students in every classroom are likely to be experiencing. We will focus on the "high incidence" learning difficulties (occur with high frequency) rather than the "low incidence" learning difficulties (occur with low frequency). As we discuss the selected learning difficulties, we will consider common characteristics of students with these difficulties as well as approaches that will support their learning. We will also examine general approaches to instruction and learning that support the learning of all students including those with difficulties. Finally, we will consider how to access the support of specialized personnel who can assist you as a classroom teacher in meeting the needs of your students who are expecting difficulties with learning.

What does it mean to have a learning difficulty? In this chapter we will consider the various learning difficulties that some students in every classroom are likely to be experiencing. We will focus on the "high incidence" learning difficulties (occur with high frequency) rather than the "low incidence" learning difficulties (occur with low frequency). As we discuss the selected learning difficulties, we will consider common characteristics of students with these difficulties as well as approaches that will support their learning. We will also examine general approaches to instruction and learning that support the learning of all students including those with difficulties. Finally, we will consider how to access the support of specialized personnel who can assist you as a classroom teacher in meeting the needs of your students who are expecting difficulties with learning.

In this topic we will examine different views of learning that people hold and the potential influences that these may have on the approaches to students' learning. We will look at behavioural, cognitive and constructivist views of learning and consider how the structure of each approach shapes student learning. In particular we will examine Reception Learning and Discovery Learning as two different approaches to teaching and learning. Outcome-based learning as it is currently framed in Queensland is considered as well the new Essential Learnings and Reporting framework that will come into effect by the year 2008. The chapter will conclude by examining a model describing the cycle of learning (from Biggs).

There is no single phrase to describe students who are culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD). Indeed, there are many different definitions that describe culture; most definitions include such features as the knowledge, rules, traditions, beliefs and values that guide a particular group. The group can defined along religious, ethnic, racial, gender, social class or other criteria. Every individual is a member of many different groups and so is influenced by many different cultures. This chapter will explore the impact of culture on students described as CALD in relation to their schooling in Australia. Included in this group will be students who have English as a second (or third or fourth) language and Indigenous Australian students.

Think for a moment about the types of assessment you were exposed to during your schooling years. Was it assessment that inspired you to learn? Was it effective in assisting you to gain necessary knowledge that has proved useful to you throughout your lifetime? Were you encouraged to have input into the way you were assessed? The material in this chapter will encourage you to think about assessment in ways quite different to how you were most likely assessed as a student. As assessment is fundamentally important in teaching and learning, this chapter will examine the different types of assessment available to teachers, and examine ways in which assessment can be used effectively to help students learn. We will challenge the idea that assessment should serve only to provide a measure of a student’s ability level, and consider the role that assessment can play in being a tool that students can use to further enhance their learning. We will examine some concerns educators have about traditional types of assessment (such as multiple-choice exams), and explore the emerging trend toward authentic assessment (with a particular focus on portfolio assessment).

This chapter will consider views of self-concept, self-esteem and identity in relation to self development through childhood and adolesence. The importance of social interactions such as teacher-student relationships, student-student relationships and parent-student relationships will also be discussed. Peer relationships are significant in a child's life as they impact on social, moral and emotional development. Through developing positive relationships, young people define their roles and status in relation to others. Interaction with other people provides opportunities to learn social skills and develop sensitivity to what matters to others. Through negative interactions, however, feelings of loneliness, anxiety and the potential for future problems like dropping out of school can occur. Teachers have a role in helping young people develop a positive sense of self and in providing opportunities for positive social, moral and emotional development.

In this chapter we will focus on teaching practices. We will examine how effective teachers establish clear learning goals for their students and how they link these goals to appropriate teaching strategies or activities. Planning for teaching is an important first step. Many new teachers can feel overwhelmed by the amount of preparation that is required to make teaching appear to be effortless. Developing good planning strategies is essential to good teaching. Essential teaching skills for effective teaching are described, including the need to develop good communication skills between teacher and students so that students know and understand what is expected of them. Included in this chapter is a focus on the effectiveness of using ICTs as a resource for effective instruction. This chapter will also describe evidence based practice as an evaluation process for teaching and learning. Evidence based practice ensures that teachers have considered a variety of sources from which to make important teaching and learning decisions.

In this chapter we will examine what drives and affects students’ motivation for learning. Motivation is the drive to expend effort to achieve a particular goal under a particular set of circumstances. It “energises, directs and sustains behaviour: it gets people moving, pointing them in a particular direction, and keeps them going” (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004, p. 456). Many factors determine whether a student will be motivated or not motivated to learn: interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. Furthermore, not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. In this chapter we will consider various theoretical explanations of motivation. Theories of motivation help to explain, predict, and influence behaviour. If we can explain why individuals behave the way they do in achievement settings, we can work towards creating an engaging classroom environment and using appropriate teaching methods to enhance motivation for learning.

The term 'at risk' is used broadly within the education sector to describe a range of situations and behaviours that may lead to negative educational and social outcomes for students. We need, however, to be clear in our own thinking about the type of risk that various situations present in order to give effective assistance to students. In general, there are two distinct discourses of being at risk applied to school students: firstly, at risk of academic failure includes passive disengagement from schooling and dropping out; secondly, at risk of harm, includes abuse, self-harm and suicide. While the discourses may be discrete, however, there is also considerable overlap at times and resolution may require both environmental and behavioural considerations. Indeed, the consequences of academic failure, such as early school drop-out, may be to place the individual at further risk, jeopardising development as a mentally and physically healthy adult. Failure to complete compulsory schooling, unemployment, unsafe health practices and low self-worth are among the risk factors that may lead to inability to fully develop as an adult (Kelly, 2001). In this chapter, we will examine both discourses independently, considering the related behaviours, the attribution of responsibility, and ways in which the situations may be addressed. We will also note systemic similarities in addressing the needs of all at risk students and conclude by examining the characteristics of teachers and classrooms that minimise both academic risk and risk of harm.