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Azizi, H., Daneshvar, N., Asahara, Y., Minami, M. & Anma, R. (2023). The generation of Eocene mafic dike swarms during the exhumation of a Core complex, Biarjmand area, NE Iran. Journal of Petrology 64 , 1–18 have attributed the E–W-oriented mafic dike swarm in the Biarjmand metamorphic core complex to an Eocene extensional event which is much younger than a previously suggested Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous age. They proposed that the emplacement of these dikes occurred in a rapid extensional regime coeval with the exhumation of the core complex after gravitational instability in the Central Iran/Eurasia collision zone. I appreciate the opportunity this article provides to shed light on specific aspects of the Late Mesozoic–Early Cenozoic continental extension within the Eurasian sector of the Neotethys subduction system. However, I here bring to attention certain discrepancies within Azizi et al. 's publication. Specifically, the assignment of an Eocene age to the emplacement of the E–W-oriented dike swarm, even though purportedly supported by U–Pb zircon dating, appears to be at odds with field observations and previously published geochronological data. Furthermore, the article contains internal contradictions in its presentation of the core complex model for the study area. It is important to note that Malekpour-Alamdari, A., Axen, G. J., Heizler, M. T. & Hassanzadeh, J. (2017). Large-magnitude continental extension in the northeastern Iranian plateau: insight from K-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology from the Shotor Kuh-Biarjmand metamorphic core complex. Geosphere 13 , 1207–1233 previously documented the geochronological-based metamorphic core complex model of the area. Regrettably, despite its direct relevance, these earlier works have not been acknowledged in Azizi et al. 's paper. In this comment, I outline the problems with the structural and regional geology, the zircon U–Pb age of the dike samples, the age of the dike swarm, and the geodynamic interpretations in Azizi et al. 's work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As early as the Palaeozoic era, the Tianshan Mountains constituted a vast tectonic convergent zone within the Eurasian Continent; by this time, they had already experienced multiple intense crustal movements. The Indian Plate is currently advancing northwards by more than 50 mm yr–1; it affects the Tianshan Mountains even though they are located more than 1000 km away. However, many of the geological issues of the Tianshan Mountains, especially in eastern Tianshan, which remains an active tectonic zone today, are not yet fully understood. There have been few studies into the seismogenic characteristics of this intense seismic zone. Here, the full gravity gradient tensor (GGT) within the eastern Tianshan Mountains was calculated using a stable spatial frequency domain algorithm, based on high-spatial resolution (7.2 arcsec or approximately 200 m) Global Gravity Model plus (GGMplus) surface gravity data. In addition, the features of the geological structures in the eastern Tianshan Mountains were interpreted using different combinations of GGT components. Moreover, the possibilities of using different combinations of GGT components to identify the distributions and strikes of faults was discussed regarding the potential earthquake rupture risks in this study area. The results show that (1) the distributions and strikes of the main fault zones in the study area are highly consistent with the linear geological features within the mountains, as extracted from a combination of different GGT components, including terrain effects. (2) Removing the terrain effects revealed that the different components of GGT (derived from the complete Bouguer gravity anomaly) vary gently, showing few linear geological features that could be extracted. This implies that satellite gravity data are not sufficient to analyse the characteristics of small underground geological structures (spatial scales less than ∼10 km). (3) Comparing the spatial distributions of fault traces depicted at different ages with the linear geological features of the study area revealed that discovering more unknown faults increased the coincidence ratio of linear geological features to fault traces in the area (from 27 to 40 per cent). In conclusion, the findings of this study represent a valuable reference for further revealing the seismogenic characteristics of this area, where there is a lack of detailed surface fault structure measurements due to its inaccessibility. The proposed method could also recognize faults in other similar areas with harsh conditions that are not feasible for ground-based surveys, such as forests and glaciers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Penetrative petro-fabrics in plutons, particularly late-stage solid-state fabrics, are usually considered to record regional tectonism. However, these fabrics are fundamentally ambiguous to correlate with magma-chamber processes or regional tectonics. Understanding the processes of fabric formation requires a proper understanding of pluton formation and emplacement mechanism. In this paper, we provide a case study of a transition from magma chamber-related magmatic to solid-state fabrics within the Late Triassic granitic Dushan pluton (North China) based on a multidisciplinary investigation of its emplacement mechanism, including structural geology, isotope chronology, anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility data measurement and gravity modelling. The Dushan pluton varies in a southwest direction from a megascopically isotropic monzogranite in the northeast to an arc-shaped gneissic monzogranite with locally mylonitic zones along the southwest margin. The compatible outward dipping mesoscopic and magnetic susceptibility foliations define a dome-like roof with an NE–SW long axis. Considering the absence of similar penetrative fabrics in the country rocks, a continuum of magma chamber-related fabric variations within the pluton, from magmatic to solid-state conditions, probably formed during pluton emplacement. Gravity modelling suggests that the Dushan pluton has an NE–SW trending tongue-like shape with a northeast positioned root. We propose a model in which the Dushan pluton was emplaced through a northeast feeder zone, beginning probably as a sill then evolving by inflation via several magma batches. Later magma batches inflated the country rocks to form the final pluton. Magma inflation deformed the former semi-solid magma, forming a curved gneissic to mylonitic foliation along the southwest margin of the pluton. Several multidisciplinary studies show that the North China Craton experienced a Late Triassic regional crustal extension attending the Dushan pluton emplacement. Both mesoscopic and magnetic susceptibility fabrics of the pluton could be more related to magmatic process rather than regional tectonics, implying that such fabrics within plutons need to be used with caution for inferring regional tectonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A popular idea is that accretion of sediment at a subduction zone commonly leads to the formation of a subduction channel , which is envisioned as a narrow zone located above a subducting plate and filled with vigorously circulating accreted sediment and exotic blocks. The circulation can be viewed as a forced convection, with downward flow in the lower part of the channel due to entrainment by the subducting plate, and a 'backflow' in the upper part of the channel. The backflow is often cited as an explanation for the exhumation of high-pressure/low-temperature metamorphic rocks from depths of 30 to 50 km. Previous analyses of this problem have mainly focused on the restricted case where the walls bounding the flow are artificially held fixed and rigid. A key question is if this configuration can be sustained on a geologically relevant timescale. We address this question using a coupled pair of corner flows. The pro-corner accounts for accretion and deformation directly above the subducting plate, and the retro-corner corresponds to a deformable region in the overlying plate. The two corners share a medial boundary , which is fully coupled but is otherwise free to rotate and deform. Our results indicate that the maintenance of a stable circulating flow in a narrow pro-corner (<15°) requires an unusually large viscosity ratio, μretro/μpro > 103. For lower viscosity ratios, the medial boundary would rotate rearwards, converting the initially narrow pro-corner into an obtuse geometry. For a stable narrow corner, we show that the backflow within the corner is caused by downward convergence of the incoming flow and an associated downward increase in dynamic pressure, which reaches a maximum at the corner point. The total pressure is thus expected to be much greater than predicted using a lithostatic gradient, which means that estimates of depth from metamorphic pressure would have to be adjusted accordingly. In addition, we show that the velocity fields associated with a forced corner flow and a buoyancy-assisted channel flow are nearly identical. As such, structural geology studies are not sufficient to distinguish between these two processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid urban growth has led to large population densities in foreland basin regions, and therefore a rapid increase in the number of people exposed to hazard from earthquakes in the adjacent mountain ranges. It is well known that earthquake-induced ground shaking is amplified in sedimentary basins. However, questions remain regarding the main controls on this effect. It is, therefore, crucial to identify the main controls on earthquake shaking in foreland basins as a step towards mitigating the earthquake risk posed to these regions. We model seismic-wave propagation from range-front thrust-faulting earthquakes in a foreland-basin setting. The basin geometry (depth and width) and source characteristics (fault dip and source-to-basin distance) were varied, and the resultant ground motion was calculated. We find that the source depth determines the amount of near-source ground shaking and the basin structure controls the propagation of this energy into the foreland basin. Of particular importance is the relative length scales of the basin depth and dominant seismic wavelength (controlled by the source characteristics), as this controls the amount of dispersion of surface-wave energy, and so the amplitude and duration of ground motion. The maximum ground motions occur when the basin depth matches the dominant wavelength set by the source. Basins that are shallow compared with the dominant wavelength result in low-amplitude and long-duration dispersed waveforms. However, the basin structure has a smaller effect on the ground shaking than the source depth and geometry, highlighting the need for understanding the depth distribution and dip angles of earthquakes when assessing earthquake hazard in foreland-basin settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We generated high-resolution 3-D seismic velocity models as well as a relocated earthquake catalogue across the eastern Greater Caucasus and Kura basins. This work was done using data from the recently upgraded Republic Seismological Survey Center's (RSSC) seismic network. We generated our tomographic images of crustal velocity structure in Azerbaijan using double-difference inversions (i.e. tomoDD and hypoDD). Earthquake catalogues from the RSSC between 2011 and 2016 were used; these catalogues include absolute arrival times of 103 288 P - and 120 952 S-wave traveltime picks for 7574 events recorded at 35 stations in Azerbaijan. Beginning with a layered, 1-D velocity model that was estimated using VELEST, we inverted simultaneously for relative location, V p and V s on a 3-D grid with dimensions 670 × 445 × 45 km, with a uniform grid spacing of 55 × 55 × 5 km for all of Azerbaijan. We observe that the relocated hypocentres cluster into two depth ranges, at the surface and at depth, that appear to correspond to major fault zones and the top of a subducting plate. Additionally, we note intermediate depth seismicity (∼50–60 km) beneath the Kura Basin, and a northward deepening of earthquake depths. Seismic velocities vary significantly throughout the study region; we observe very slow velocities throughout the Kura Basin between 5 and 15 km, and elevated velocities at 20–35 km. The wholesale velocity structure and seismic structure of Kura Basin strongly mirrors that of the Caspian Sea, which suggests that the geodynamics of the Caspian continue westwards into Azerbaijan. The key results of this study suggest that the northward subduction observed in the Caspian Sea continues beneath the Eastern Greater Caucasus, as well as provides evidence for active faulting along the southern margin of the mountain range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the rheology and thermal structure of the oceanic lithosphere, expressed in situ by plate flexure beneath the Hawaiian Ridge, where volcanoes of variable sizes have loaded seafloor of approximately the same age, and thus where the lithosphere is expected to have had an approximately uniform age-dependent thermal structure at the time of loading. Shipboard and satellite-derived gravity, as well as multibeam bathymetry data are used in models of plate flexure with curvature-dependent flexural rigidity, the strength of which is limited, in the shallow lithosphere, by brittle failure, and in the deeper lithosphere, by low-temperature plasticity (LTP). We compute relative likelihoods and posterior probabilities for four model parameters: average crustal density ρc , friction coefficient for brittle failure |${\mu _f}$|⁠ , a pre-exponential weakening factor F controlling the strength of LTP and lithospheric geotherm age t. Results show that if the lithosphere temperatures were as is expected for normal (t =) 90-Myr-old seafloor at the time of volcano loading, the rheology must be significantly weaker than expected. Specifically, weak brittle strengths (μf  ≤ 0.3) show relatively high probabilities for three of the six published LTP flow laws examined. Alternatively, moderate-to-large brittle strengths (μf  ≥ 0.5) require all LTP flow laws to be substantially weakened with F  = 102 to > 108 or, equivalently, activation energy reduced by 10–35 per cent. In contrast, if the lithosphere has been moderately reheated by the Hawaiian hotspot, represented by geotherms for t  = 50–70 Myr, then the flow laws of Evans & Goetze, Raterron et al. and Krancj et al. require little or no weakening. Such modest thermal rejuvenation is allowed by heatflow constraints, supported by regional mantle seismic tomography imaging as well as compositions of mantle xenoliths, and reconciles previously noted discrepancies between the LTP strengths of lithosphere beneath Hawaii versus that entering the Pacific subduction zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2017 April 5 M w 6 Sefid Sang earthquake occurred east-northeast of the town of Fariman between the Binalud Mountains, at the northeast boundary of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone, and the Doruneh Fault which defines the northern limit of the Lut Block. The pattern of present-day deformation in this area is not well understood. We combine results from studies of earthquake location, focal mechanism solutions and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) to investigate the coseismic displacements. The active deformation of the source region is investigated through a synthesis of the structural geology, complimented by geological fieldwork. Our results reveal that the mainshock nucleated at a depth of ∼15 km on a reverse fault plane dipping north-northeast, with a component of dextral faulting. Rupture in the mainshock was almost unidirectional towards the southeast. The temporal growth of the 24-km long aftershock cloud reflects migration of seismicity towards the southeast. Analysis of ascending and descending interferograms of TOPS S1 SAR images show a maximum of 9 and 11 cm of surface deformation, respectively. A rupture model based on the inversion of the InSAR interferograms features a maximum slip of 83 cm on the NNE-dipping fault plane. Inversion of fault-slip data from earthquake focal mechanisms and geological field measurements indicates a contemporary regional transpressional tectonic regime characterized by a NE-trending maximum compression (mean direction of N020°E for seismological slip data and N029°E for geological fault kinematics). This implies a transpressional active kinematics according to which the Central Iran–Eurasia convergence is taken up by reverse dextral faulting on several NW-striking faults such as the eastern termination of the Doruneh fault and the southeast termination of the Chakaneh-Neyshabur fault systems. Our seismological, geodetic and geological results consistently indicate accommodation of active deformation by oblique-slip reverse faulting that is distributed in the region connecting the distinct block-bounding fault systems of northeast and eastern Iran. We propose a transpressional relay zone structural model to explain the nature, kinematics and structural pattern of the boundary of the collision zone between the Doruneh Fault and the Binalud Mountains. Our observations and results could shed light on structural aspects of other intracontinental collision zone boundaries, where deformation is taken up by discontinuous continental block boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation of fold-thrust belts at convergent margins is a dynamic process. Accretion of weak sediments to the front of the overriding plate results in crustal thickening and continued flexural subsidence of the underthrusting plate. Fold-thrust belts are often treated as a Coulomb wedge having self-similar geometries with a critical taper, and either a rigid or isostatically compensated base. In this paper, we build upon this work by developing a new dynamic model to investigate both the role of the thickness and material properties of the incoming sediment, and the flexure in the underthrusting plate in controlling the behaviour and evolution of fold-thrust belts. Our analysis shows that the evolution of fold-thrust belts can be dominated by either gravitational spreading or vertical thickening, depending on the relative importance of sediment flux, material properties and flexure. We apply our model to the Makran accretionary prism and the Indo–Burman Ranges, and show that for the Makran flexure must be considered in order to explain the dip of the sediment–basement interface from seismic reflection profiles. In the Indo–Burman Ranges, we show that incoming sediment thickness has a first-order control on the variations in the characteristics of the topography from north to south of the Shillong Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neotropical seasonally dry forest (NSDF) has climatic constraints that have produced endemic species confined to floristic nuclei throughout those taxa with distribution restricted to this forest. Capparaceae have a pantropical distribution, although traditionally they have been considered mainly to be distributed in dry areas and therefore influenced by climatic constraints. We carried out an analysis of endemicity (NDM/VNDM) using 7602 records of 21 genera and 104 species in order to test whether climatic constraints of NSDF have shaped endemic species and areas of endemism of Capparaceae geographically confined to NSDF floristic nuclei. A total of three genera (monogeneric) and 29 endemic species included in 38 areas of endemism and 14 consensus areas were recovered. From Consensus areas, we proposed five generalized areas of endemism, mainly located in NSDF: Lower Central America, Northern South America, Northwestern South America, Northeastern South America and Central South of South America. However, only one of them (Lower Central America, located in Panama) is not related to NSDF. These outcomes allow us to suggest that the distributional patterns of Capparaceae, represented by the areas of endemism, were mainly affected by the tectonics and climatic fluctuations that shaped the current distribution of NSDF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Japanese Islands have a high degree of biodiversity, with almost the entire area being designated as a 'global hotspot of biodiversity'. There is no doubt that many complex factors have contributed to this, particularly the complex history of the geological formation of the Japanese Islands. As such, we have focused on the genetic structure and evolutionary history of dipteromimid mayflies. In this study, 392 specimens from 158 localities were collected and analysed genetically. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using the mitochondrial DNA 16S rRNA and COI regions and the nuclear DNA 28S rRNA and histone H3 regions. We found that these mayflies exhibit a genetic structure that strongly reflects the geological history of the early stages of formation of the Japanese Islands. The degree of genetic differentiation between these two species was extensive. Furthermore, Dipteromimus tipuliformis exhibits an explicit pattern of geographical differentiation. Dipteromimid mayflies have a unique genetic structure that strongly reflects the geohistorical formation of the Japanese Islands. Specifically, it has been shown clearly that they are genetically differentiated across geo-tectonic lines, rather than according to the geographical barriers existing today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A gravity survey of the Al-Ain region within the United Arab Emirates (UAE) was designated to compare a regional gravity map with surface structural and geophysical studies of the area. The study area is located in the eastern part of the UAE near the Oman border. Gravity data were collected at 452 stations using a Scintrex CG-6 gravimeter. The gravity measurements define the subsurface density distributions in the study area. The Bouguer anomaly map shows values ranging from –21.5 to 10.8 mGal. High Bouguer anomalies were observed in the eastern and western parts of the study area, in good agreement with the location of known thrust faults. Gravity gradient derivative methods (horizontal gradient, analytic signal and tilt angle) were applied to the corrected gravity data to enhance visibility of subsurface geological features. The gradient derivative methods applied to the gravity data outline subsurface structures trending NNE–SSW, NE–SW and E–W. These trends can be correlated with regional tectonic phases and are in agreement with known surface structural trends. The power spectrum of the gravity data shows two distinct geological layers—a deeper layer from 2 to 6 km depth representing Cretaceous formations, and a shallower layer from 0.5 to 2 km depth representing Tertiary formations. The 3-D gravity inversion results show subsurface density distribution characterized by high density contrast of geological bodies located in eastern and western parts of the study area, representing the Semail Ophiolites and Barzaman Formation, respectively. The Hafit Mountain is characterized by a low density contrast body at near surface (–500 kg m–3) beneath which density increases with depth to +50 kg m–3 at 7 km (b.s.l.). This study is the first of its kind to image the regional subsurface and geological features of Al-Ain region with density distribution from ground surface to 15 km (b.s.l.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnitudes of differential stress in the lithosphere, especially in the crust, are still disputed. Earthquake-based stress drop estimates indicate median values <10 MPa whereas the lateral variation of gravitational potential energy per unit area (GPE) across significant relief indicates stress magnitudes of ca. 100 MPa in average across a 100 km thick lithosphere between the Indian lowland and the Tibetan plateau. These standard GPE -based stress estimates correspond to membrane stresses because they are associated with a deformation that is uniform with depth. We show here with new analytical results that lateral variations in GPE can also cause bending moments and related bending stresses of several hundreds of MPa. Furthermore, we perform 2-D thermomechanical numerical simulations (1) to evaluate estimates for membrane and bending stresses based on GPE variations, (2) to quantify minimum crustal stress magnitudes that are required to maintain the topographic relief between Indian lowland and Tibetan plateau for ca. 10 Ma and (3) to quantify the corresponding relative contribution of crustal strength to the total lithospheric strength. The numerical model includes viscoelastoplastic deformation, gravity and heat transfer. The model configuration is based on density fields from the CRUST1.0 data set and from a geophysically and petrologically constrained density model based on in situ field campaigns. The numerical results indicate that values of differential stress in the upper crust must be > ca. 180 MPa, corresponding to a friction angle of ca. 10° to maintain the topographic relief between lowland and plateau for >10 Ma. The relative contribution of crustal strength to total lithospheric strength varies considerably laterally. In the region between lowland and plateau and inside the plateau the depth-integrated crustal strength is approximately equal to the depth-integrated strength of the mantle lithosphere. Simple analytical formulae predicting the lateral variation of depth-integrated stresses agree with numerically calculated stress fields, which show both the accuracy of the numerical results and the applicability of simple, rheology-independent, analytical predictions to highly variable, rheology-dependent stress fields. Our results indicate that (1) crustal strength can be locally equal to mantle lithosphere strength and that (2) crustal stresses must be at least one order of magnitude larger than median stress drops in order to support the plateau relief over a duration of ca. 10 Ma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crustal thickness (H) and Vp / Vs ratio (κ) are two important parameters in characterizing a crustal structure. Their estimates from receiver function data often have large uncertainties due to the severe trade-off between the two parameters when the receiver functions only have the Moho P -to- S converted phase and its crustal multiples are weak or missing, which are common in tectonically active regions. Here, we extended the H –κ stacking method by combining receiver functions and PmP traveltimes to determine H, κ and Vp simultaneously. We developed a deconvolution technique to measure PmP traveltimes using the post-critical Moho P -wave reflection SsPmp in the teleseismic S wave. Synthetic tests show that the new methods can reliably extract the PmP traveltimes and determine crustal thickness and velocities as long as the Moho Ps is clear in receiver functions. We applied the methods to 63 broad-band seismic stations in the western Hubei Province of China. The results confirm the rapid increase of crustal thickness revealed in a previous study from the low-elevation plains in the eastern part of the study area to the mountains in the west. The corresponding increase of crustal Poisson's ratio from low-to-intermediate values to intermediate-to-high values suggests that the crust in the eastern part is more felsic, most likely due to delamination of a portion of the mafic lower crust of the Yangtze platform in the Late Mesozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional well logs serve as effective tools for estimation of pore pressure (PP), tectonic strain and stress magnitudes in normal and thrust faulted parts of the Upper Assam basin. Several models have been developed for prediction of PP and stress magnitudes over the years. Acquiring tectonic strain in active area enhances the accuracy of in situ stress estimate in the Upper Assam. This paper discusses Eaton's sonic model for PP estimation and assesses stress magnitudes incorporating tectonic strain in poroelastic models. Eaton's exponent is varied from 0 to 3 to get best-fit results for PP prediction validated with available modular dynamic tester and mud weight data. PP is estimated for geological formations: Dhekiajuli, Girujan, Tipam, Barail, Kopili, Sylhet, Langpur to the granitic basement in normal and thrust faulted areas of the Upper Assam basin using Eaton's exponent of 1.0. The predicted tectonic strain using uniaxial model varies from −0.0044 to 0.0061. The computed tectonic strain using biaxial poroelastic model ranges from 0.000099 to 0.00077 along NE–SW and from −0.001 to −0.0019 along NW–SE directions for normal faulting regime, respectively. In thrust faulting regime, the tectonic strains are obtained as 0.00092 and 0.00053 along NE–SW and NW–SE directions, respectively. The vertical (S V), maximum (S H) and minimum (S h) horizontal stress gradients range 21.7–23.8, 14.9–23.1 and 12.0–21.4 MPa km−1, respectively. Moreover, we have proposed a multiple linear regression model for evaluation of S h from independent parameters, namely, PP, Poisson's ratio and S V from three wells and dependent parameter as leak-off test (LOT) data. This is further tested with other three wells in the study area. The predicted S h is found to have satisfactory correlation with observed LOT for these wells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major faults release tectonic stress not only during large earthquakes, but also through slow aseismic slip associated with microseismic activity. Microearthquakes could be interpreted as the failure of fault asperities. If the slip accumulated during microearthquakes could be estimated with seismological data, the aseismic component of fault slip is more difficult to evaluate. In this study, we are interested in quantifying the aseismic fault slip from the seismic moment released by the simultaneous on fault seismic activity. For that, we study systematically the relationship between total slip and microseismic moment released on a fault modelled as a heterogeneous planar Dieterich–Ruina frictional interface producing earthquakes and aseismic slip. It is shown that for a long enough earthquake sequence, typically involving several occurrences of the largest asperity failure, the seismic moment released is directly proportional to the total (seismic plus aseismic) slip on the fault accumulated during the sequence. In particular, the total seismic moment divided by the fault area represents a fraction of the total slip that is of the order of the apparent density of asperities. The apparent density of asperities is defined as the fraction of the fault area that experienced a dynamic rupture during the sequence. This result provides a strong mechanical support to extend the use of microseismic activity as creepmeters along major active faults, beyond the common analysis of repeating earthquakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have performed a tomographic study of the upper mantle under the Borborema Province by inverting relative P -wave traveltime residuals (including the PKPdf phase). The events were recorded by more than 50 broad-band and short-period stations deployed across the region, resulting in a total data set of 1912 relative residuals. A multichannel phase cross-correlation technique was utilized to develop the measurements, which were then inverted through an iterative, non-linear inversion scheme based on the subspace inversion method. The Fast Marching Method, a grid-based numerical algorithm that traces an interface evolving over a narrow band of nodes that are updated solving the eikonal equation by finite differences using upwind entropy, was considered to solve the forward problem. Traveltimes from outside of the 3-D model were calculated using a global reference model. The resulting tomographic images reveal structure down to depths of ∼600 km, under an area extending approximately 800 km in the EW direction and 900 km in the NS direction. The most important features revealed by the tomographic images include: (i) a relatively fast lithospheric mantle under the southern Borborema Plateau, when compared to the lithospheric mantle north of the Patos Lineament; (ii) a marked, shallow (< 150 km) low-velocity anomaly under the northeastern most corner of the Borborema Province; and (iii) a low-velocity channel bordering the Borborema Plateau at asthenospheric (250–400 km) depths. The lithospheric velocity contrast is interpreted as arising from a colder, stronger lithosphere south of the lineament, while the asthenospheric low-velocity channel is interpreted as resulting from lateral flow from a distant mantle plume (located in SE Brazil). We argue that the rheological contrast validates a stretching model recently proposed to explain the Plateau's elevated topography, and that the postulated lateral flow represents the source of magmas feeding intraplate volcanism in NE Brazil for the past ∼80 Ma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new U-series disequilibria results for 37 basalts collected from the flanks and axial valley of the Endeavour segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, making Endeavour one of the most well-characterized spreading ridges along the global ridge system. Detailed studies of Endeavour basalts provide a geological framework for the tectonic, magmatic, and hydrothermal evolution of the ridge, and the geochemical diversity of basalts that result from short spatial- and temporal-scale variations in mantle sources and melting processes. Because the geologic and geochemical context of these basalts is well known, new uranium series disequilibria and model ages place additional constraints on the recent magmatic evolution of the ridge. While Endeavour basalts vary widely and include depleted, normal, transitional, and enriched compositions, relatively little variation is observed in Th/U ratios or238U–230Th disequilibria in near zero-age basalts. The largest variation in both exists in lavas erupted most recently in the axial valley (the 'Graben Trend') with overall higher230Th excesses. Some basalts with lower230Th excesses collected from pillow mounds on the flanks of the ridge (the 'Inflated Trend') have aged significantly since eruption and document the episodic nature of volcanic and tectonic regimes at Endeavour. Uranium-series melting models using two lithologies (peridotite and eclogite) can account for U–Th systematics in near zero-age basalts. These models indicate that mixing of diverse, deeply-generated, enriched melts and homogeneous, shallowly-generated, depleted melts can account for the geochemistry of Endeavour basalts. In addition, decreasing porosity and melting rate of the eclogite component is primarily responsible for chemical and physical changes occurring at the Endeavour segment through time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyse the complete earthquake archive of the western Corinth Rift using both cross-correlations between pairs of event waveforms and accurate differential traveltimes observed at common stations, in order to identify small-scale fault structures at depth. The waveform database was generated by the dense Corinth Rift Laboratory network and includes about 205 000 events between 2000 and 2015. Half of them are accurately relocated using double-difference techniques. The novelty of this relocated catalogue is the integration of the recent westernmost earthquakes due to the extension of the network in 2010 to the western extremity of the Corinth Rift and the consideration of the whole database over more than 15 yr. The total relocated seismicity exhibits well-defined clusters at the root of the main normal faults mainly between 5 and 10 km depth in the middle of the gulf and illuminates thin active structure planes dipping north about 20° under the northern coast. Some seismicity is observed in the footwall of the main active faults, along the West and East Helike faults. We also built a multiplet database based on waveform similarity taking into account cross-correlation coefficients weighted by signal-to-noise ratios. Short-term multiplets are concentrated in the middle of the gulf along the Kamarai fault system, in a 1–2 km thick layer at 6–8 km depth, interpreted as a highly fractured geological layer. They are often associated to slow seismic migration velocities occurring in this zone during strong swarm episodes and are thus likely to be triggered by pore pressure variations. On the other hand, most long-term and regular multiplets are located deeper (7–10 km), under the northern coast, within a layer less than 0.3 km thick. They occur at the border of nearly planar structures with low seismicity rate, which we identify as fault planes, and they may be explained by aseismic slip on the fault surface around them. This supports the existence of an immature structure growing downdip towards the north at the base of the active geological layer, which possibly connects to the ductile middle crust around 15 km depth, as suggested by the occurrence of deeper events in the continuity of the 1995–fault plane. The different migration velocities (from 0.05 km d−1 to several km d−1) highlighted during the western 2014–swarms indicate that both pore pressure and creep diffusion are operating in the fault zone. The fast migrations observed in the Psathopyrgos fault zone, where a slow slip event was detected by dilatometers in 2002, compare with that for creeping faults. To the west, from spatial distribution of events, we show that the Rion–Patras fault connecting the western extremity of the Corinth Rift fault system to the Patras Rift, is dipping around 60° north–west with a rake angle of −115°. Finally, we identified two new areas within the central active zone which may correspond to large scale, locked asperities on active fault surfaces, similar in size to the main asperity broken during the 1995, M W 6.3, Aigion earthquake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extensive search for repeating earthquakes was performed in the western Corinth Gulf by applying waveform cross-correlation on 22 000 earthquakes that occurred in 2008–2014. Event pairs with high correlation coefficient (CC ≥ 0.95) recorded by two or more stations are classified as multiplets of repeating events. The highly similar event pairs have typically interevent distances less than a quarter wavelength (∼150 m for a dominant frequency of 10 Hz) and are used to estimate the accuracy of the relocated catalogue. A detailed analysis of the spatio-temporal properties of the repeating sequences revealed two types of repeating events, namely, burst-like and continuous-type repeaters. Burst-like repeaters are widespread in the entire study area, mostly associated with seismic excitations located at depths between 5 and 9 km, triggered either by fluid intrusion or stress transfer. Their duration is short with high values of coefficient of variation in recurrence intervals (COV > 1) and high slip rates. The continuous-type repeaters, which last 1–7 yr, with COV ∼ 1 and slip rates almost 0.26 cm yr−1, form a very narrow shallow north-dipping seismic zone at 10 km depth along the Psathopyrgos and Aigion faults. That kind of activity provides strong evidence for aseismic slip in the western Corinth Gulf and defines the boundary between brittle and ductile layers in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seaward dipping reflectors (SDRs) are ubiquitous features of the offshore regions of volcanic rifted continental margins where they comprise wedge-shaped packages of mainly extrusive lava flows. However, their origin has been disputed with some workers suggesting they form by progressive subsidence of extended crust while others propose they are accommodated within the crust by one or more continent-dipping normal faults. We present here a simple model in which SDRs are formed by a succession of dykes which intrude and load the crust. These loads cause a surface flexure, which is subsequently infilled and loaded by volcanic material. The model, which does not require a bounding normal fault, explains the arcuate shape, limited offlap geometries and downdip thickening of SDRs as observed in seismic reflection profile data. By comparing observed and calculated dips we are able to constrain the elastic plate model type and the effective elastic thickness of extended lithosphere, T e. Results suggest a broken plate or significantly weakened continuous plate model is required to produce the characteristic arcuate shape. Decreasing the T e for successive loads as rifting progresses produces offlap of subpackages, while increasing the T e produces onlap. We have verified our results using process-oriented gravity modelling, in which the gravity effect of surface volcanic infill loads is calculated and combined with the gravity effect of buried dyke loads and the gravity effect of their isostatic compensation. Results from a case study in the Orange Basin, offshore Namibia show good general agreement between observed Airy isostatic anomalies and calculated gravity anomalies with T e in the range 1–3 km. The steep gradient that is often observed in the Airy isostatic gravity anomaly at rifted margins is therefore a useful proxy for the seaward edge of the dykes that intrude the crust prior to seafloor spreading, rather than a change in basement elevation at the boundary between oceanic and continental crust, as had been proposed by previous workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inferring tectonic movements from earthquakes (seismotectonics) relies on earthquakes faithfully recording tectonic motions. In the northern half of the Red Sea, however, events of magnitude 5.0 and above are almost entirely absent from global catalogues, even though GPS and other plate motion data suggest that the basin is actively rifting at ∼10 mm yr−1. Seismic moments computed here from event magnitudes contributed to the International Seismology Centre (ISC) suggest that the moment release rate is more than an order of magnitude smaller than for the southern Red Sea and for the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR), which is spreading at a comparable rate to the central Red Sea and is more remote from recording stations. A smaller moment release rate in the northern Red Sea might be anticipated from its smaller spreading rate, but seismic coupling coefficients, which account for spreading rate variations, are also one order of magnitude smaller than for the other two areas. We explore potential explanations for this apparently reduced seismicity. The northern Red Sea is almost continuously covered with thick evaporites and overlying Plio-Pleistocene sediments. These deposits may have reduced the thickness of the seismogenic layer, for example, by elevating lithosphere temperatures by a thermal blanketing effect or by leading to excess pore fluid pressures that reduce effective stress. The presence of subdued seismicity here implies that tectonic movements can in places be poorly recorded by earthquake data and requires that alternative data be sought when investigating the active tectonics of sedimented rifts in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence of numerous chromitite layers within the Rustenburg Layered Suite of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, has been widely cited in models to explain the origin of the igneous layering. Most hypotheses are based around the principle of episodic replenishment of the magma chamber. Chromitite layers occur in both the Lower Critical Zone (LCZ), which is wholly ultramafic, and the Upper Critical Zone (UCZ), where they are part of repetitive units that include pyroxenite (± minor harzburgite), norite and anorthosite. The UCZ also reveals stringers of disseminated chromite, which, despite being only a few millimetres thick, are laterally very persistent. We investigate chromite stringers from the uppermost part of the UCZ at Winnaarshoek in the Eastern Limb of the intrusion, where they are preferentially located on contacts between layers of pyroxenite and anorthosite. Stringers overlain by anorthosite are of particular interest as they are located in the centre of units and are unlikely to have developed from replenishment by basal flows of magma. The uppermost of the two chromite stringers associated with the Merensky Reef is unusual as it is located wholly within a layer of pyroxenite, and does not demarcate a lithological contact. Stringers are categorized as Type III chromite to distinguish them from the thicker layers of chromitite, Type I (in the LCZ) and Type II (in the UCZ). The Cr-spinel in the stringers is characterized by relatively low Cr/Fe ratios and is associated with recrystallized, unusually calcic, plagioclase as the principal silicate phase. Accessory phases include rutile, corundum, zircon and baddeleyite, in addition to base-metal sulphides and PGM. The origin of Type III stringers is ascribed to replenishment by sheets of picritic magma injected, not as basal flows, but as sills into an earlier-formed crystalline substrate dominated by well-defined layers of norite and anorthosite. In the framework of this hypothesis, the units that characterize the UCZ are, therefore, not differentiation cycles: the ultramafic components crystallized from U-type (picritic) magmas and the norite–anorthosite from A-type (tholeiitic) magmas. The two components of the units were emplaced non-sequentially, but the ultramafic rocks (± chromitite layers and/or chromite stringers) still occur in stratigraphic sequence relative to each other. Type III stringers developed on either the lower or upper contacts of the picritic magma sheets, dependent on whether they were emplaced above or below a layer of anorthosite. Nucleation of Cr-spinel was triggered by contamination of the picritic magma by partial melting of the anorthosite. Melting of low-temperature oikocrysts of pyroxene and interstitial plagioclase produced a thin boundary layer of melt mush. This boundary layer achieved rapid saturation in Cr-spinel, in part owing to Cr2O3 released from the pyroxene oikocrysts. Heat was insufficient to melt the main framework of plagioclase crystals in the anorthosite or the noritic wall-rocks. The different occurrences of chromite in the Bushveld should not be aggregated into a single overarching hypothesis. Type III stringers are probably an entirely different phenomenon from the thicker layers and provide corroborating evidence of the sill hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the most geochemically unique drill cores recovered within the Yellowstone–Snake River Plain (YSRP) province, the Sugar City geothermal test well was drilled into intra-caldera rhyolite lavas and tuffs erupted during the middle to late Pliocene and the resurgent basaltic volcanism erupted during the Pleistocene. This sequence parallels the two main stages proposed for YSRP hotspot calderas: i.e. the eruption of several large-volume, ash-flow tuff sheets followed by caldera collapse, then cessation of major rhyolitic activity and gradual subsidence accompanied by filling and eventual burial of the caldera by basalt lava flows. We employ stratigraphic relationships, paleomagnetism, and major, trace element, and Sr–Nd isotope geochemistry to develop models for the origin of the basaltic and rhyolitic magmas within a geographical and temporal context. The basalts are characterized by distinct groupings based on depth and geochemistry and reflect the dominant compositions observed on the surface, e.g. Snake River olivine tholeiite (SROT) and evolved type (e.g. Craters of the Moon). We also observe contaminated basalts that interacted with rhyolite/granite. The basaltic magma formed by shallow partial melting in the plume channel carved into the lithosphere. The older rhyolites preserve the classical characteristics of A-type granites and display major element and trace element concentrations typical for Eastern SRP caldera centres and minimal stratigraphic variation. Multiple lines of evidence document extensive magmatic differentiation and coupled basalt–rhyolite interactions. We find that the most plausible origin for the rhyolites is via partial melting of a hybrid source, comprising Archean crustal components and younger juvenile mafic intrusions. Assimilation of hydrothermally altered material is also required for some eruptive units. The rhyolites did not evolve from residual magma left over from the climactic Kilgore eruption (4·0 Ma), but instead represent discrete magma generation events in the course of a few hundred thousand years between 4·0 to 3·8 Ma. Beginning at approximately 3.3 Ma, basalts were able to erupt through the solidified composite pluton that formed below the caldera. The transition from rhyolite to basalt is tied to the declining flux of basaltic magma as North America moved away from the Yellowstone hotspot core. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pacific–Australian plate boundary in the South Island of New Zealand is a transpressive boundary through continental lithosphere consisting of multiple terranes that were amalgamated during previous periods of subduction and plate reorganization. The style and locus of deformation within the present-day plate boundary is controlled by the mechanical behaviour and distribution of these different lithospheric blocks. Geological studies are limited when it comes to illuminating lithospheric structure and rheology at depth. Imaging the 3-D seismic velocity and attenuation (1/ Q), with distributed local earthquakes, helps unravel regional structure and variations in strength, fractures and fluids. We determine the 3-D distribution of Qp and Qs, which show much more variation than seismic velocity (Vp), underlining the utility of Q (1/attenuation). The Haast schist belt, previously shown as ca. 25-km thick dry unit with moderate Vp and low Vp / Vs, is imaged with high Qs, and the highest Qs areas correlate with zones of higher grade schist. Below 25-km depth, the distribution of high Qp and Qs is markedly different from that of the overlying geological terranes. Both the strike and depth of the high Q regions indicate that they represent the subducted Hikurangi Plateau and its adjacent Cretaceous oceanic crust. The thickest part of the plateau, previously identified by Vp  > 8.5 km s−1 from seismic tomography and P -wave precursors and associated with an eclogite layer at the base of the plateau, also has the highest Q. This confirms that the strong plateau extends southwestwards as a narrow salient to the northern Fiordland subduction zone, where moderate- Q Eocene oceanic crust on the Australian plate is being subducted and bent to vertical. In the ductile crust, Q results suggest fluid saturation and elevated temperature conditions in the crustal root of the Southern Alps, and confirm that the shape of this crustal root is influenced by both the orientation and depth of the underlying plateau. Q also provides insight into the failed rifting that occurred in oceanic crust at the edges of the Hikurangi Plateau, with a region of relatively low Q at the on-land extension of the Bounty Trough and Canterbury Basin, at the narrowest part of the South Island. In the brittle crust above 10-km depth, low Q is related to regions of active recent seismicity that have high fracture density, with low Qs where fluids are present. In contrast, the locked Alpine Fault does not exhibit low Q in the brittle crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining density structure of the Tibetan Plateau is helpful in better understanding of tectonic structure and development. Seismic method, as traditional approach obtaining a large number of achievements of density structure in the Tibetan Plateau except in the centre and west, is primarily inhibited by the poor seismic station coverage. As the implementation of satellite gravity missions, gravity method is more competitive because of global homogeneous gravity coverage. In this paper, a novel wavelet-based gravity method with high computation efficiency and excellent local identification capability is developed to determine multilayer densities beneath the Tibetan Plateau. The inverted six-layer densities from 0 to 150 km depth can reveal rich tectonic structure and development of study area: (1) The densities present a clockwise pattern, nearly east-west high-low alternating pattern in the west and nearly south-north high-low alternating pattern in the east, which is almost perpendicular to surface movement direction relative to the stable Eurasia from the Global Positioning System velocity field; (2) Apparent fold structure approximately from 10 to 110 km depth can be inferred from the multilayer densities, the deformational direction of which is nearly south-north in the west and east-west in the east; (3) Possible channel flows approximately from 30 to 110 km depth can also be observed clearly during the multilayer densities. Moreover, the inverted multilayer densities are in agreement with previous studies, which verify the correctness and effectiveness of our method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major changes in tectonic style can lead to tapping of highly variable magma sources and potentially result in significant episodes of crustal growth. Here we focus on magmatism associated with a transition from arc magmatism to subsequent over-thickening and eventual orogenic collapse. This transition is associated with cessation of subduction and was followed by continental extension and finally continental break-up as recorded in the Cretaceous magmatic record of Zealandia. Orogenic collapse peaked at ∼110 Ma and is expressed through core complex formation and the intrusion of I- to evolved I/S-type Rahu Suite plutons that have widely varying chemical compositions but homogeneous whole-rock and zircon isotopic signatures that are intermediate between mantle and local upper crust values. The Rahu Suite is interpreted to be derived from differing degrees of melt extraction from a pre-existing lower crustal source and lacks a demonstrable juvenile component. This lower crustal source was likely formed by magmatic underplating and melt–crust hybridization during preceding arc volcanism (Separation Point and Darran suites), effectively smearing out a pulsed event of crust formation in the zircon record. Therefore, late orogenic I- and I/S-type suites do not have to equate to crustal growth and can be an expression of crustal re-melting. An abrupt change in magma sources in Zealandia occurred after 100 Ma during the onset of progressive crustal extension. A juvenile alkaline component (presumably derived from the lithospheric mantle) is suggested to have been present from >97 Ma. This component became more pronounced with time until the emplacement of granites and trachytes with isotopic signatures overlapping with coeval mafic mantle-derived dikes during bimodal rift-related magmatism. The juvenile alkaline component dictated the composition of the felsic magmas but did not represent a significant crustal growth event due to small total volumes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key concept that is common to many assumptions inherent within seismic hazard assessment is that of tectonic similarity. This recognizes that certain regions of the globe may display similar geophysical characteristics, such as in the attenuation of seismic waves, the magnitude scaling properties of seismogenic sources or the seismic coupling of the lithosphere. Previous attempts at tectonic regionalization, particularly within a seismic hazard assessment context, have often been based on expert judgements; in most of these cases, the process for delineating tectonic regions is neither reproducible nor consistent from location to location. In this work, the regionalization process is implemented in a scheme that is reproducible, comprehensible from a geophysical rationale, and revisable when new relevant data are published. A spatial classification-scheme is developed based on fuzzy logic, enabling the quantification of concepts that are approximate rather than precise. Using the proposed methodology, we obtain a transparent and data-driven global tectonic regionalization model for seismic hazard applications as well as the subjective probabilities (e.g. degree of being active/degree of being cratonic) that indicate the degree to which a site belongs in a tectonic category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to derive local tsunami risks for a particular coast, hydro- and morphodynamic numerical models that are calibrated and compared with sedimentary field data of past tsunami impacts have proven very effective. While this approach has widely been used with regard to recent tsunami events, comparable investigations into pre-/historical tsunami impacts hardly exist, which is the objective of this study focusing on the Ambrakian Gulf in northwestern Greece. The Ambrakian Gulf is located in the most active seismotectonic and by this most tsunamigenic area of the Mediterranean. Accordingly, palaeotsunami field studies have revealed repeated tsunami impacts on the gulf during the past 8000 yr. The current study analyses 151 vibracores of the Ambrakian Gulf coast in order to evaluate tsunami signals in the sedimentary record. Based on a hydro- and morphodynamic numerical model of the study area, various tsunami waves are simulated with the aim of finding scenarios that compare favourably with tsunami deposits detected in the field. Both, field data and simulation results suggest a decreasing tsunami influence from the western to the eastern Ambrakian Gulf. Various scenarios are needed to explain tsunami deposits in different parts of the gulf. Whereas shorter period tsunami waves (T=30 min) from the south and west compare favourably with field data in the western gulf, longer period waves (T=80 min) from a western direction show the best agreement with tsunami sediments detected in southwestern Aktio Headland and in the more central parts of the Ambrakian Gulf including Lake Voulkaria. Tsunamis from the southwest generally do not accord with field traces. Besides the spatial sediment distribution, the numerical model accurately reflects the sedimentary composition of the detected event deposits and reproduces a number of essential features typical of tsunamites, which were also observed in the field. Such include fining- and thinning-landward and the marine character of the deposits. By contrast, the simulated thickness of tsunami sediments usually lags behind the observed thickness in the field and some event layers cannot be explained by any of the simulated scenarios. Regarding the frequency of past tsunami events and their spatial dimensions indicated by both field data and simulation results, a high tsunami risk has to be derived for the Ambrakian Gulf. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt flow induced by subsalt normal faulting is mainly controlled by tilting of the salt layer, the amount of differential loading due to syn-kinematic deposition, and tectonic shearing at the top or the base of the salt layer. Our study addresses the first two mechanisms and aims to examine salt flow patterns above a continuously moving subsalt normal fault and beneath a syn-kinematic minibasin. In such a setting, salt either tends to flow down towards the basin centre driven by its own weight or is squeezed up towards the footwall side owing to loading differences between the minibasin and the region above the footwall block. Applying isostatic balancing in analytical models, we calculated the steady-state flow velocity in a salt layer. This procedure gives insights into (1) the minimum vertical offset required for upward flow to occur, (2) the magnitude of the flow velocity, and (3) the average density of the supra-salt cover layer at the point at which upward flow starts. In a sensitivity study, we examined how the point of flow reversal and the velocity patterns are influenced by changes of the salt and cover layer thickness, the geometry of the cover flexure, the dip of the subsalt fault, compaction parameters of the supra-salt cover, the salt viscosity and the salt density. Our model results reveal that in most geological scenarios, salt flow above a continuously displacing subsalt normal fault goes through an early phase of downward flow. At sufficiently high fault offset in the range of 700-2600 m, salt is later squeezed upward towards the footwall side. This flow reversal occurs at smaller vertical fault displacement, if the thickness of the pre-kinematic layer is larger, the sedimentation rate of the syn-kinematic cover is higher, the compaction coefficient of cover sediments (i.e. the density increase with depth) is larger or the average density of the salt is lower. Other geometrical parameters such as the width of the cover monocline, the dip of the basement fault or the thickness of the salt layer have no significant influence on the point of reversal, but modify the velocity of the salt flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past 15 yr, numerical models of convection in Earth's mantle have made a leap forward: they can now produce self-consistent plate-like behaviour at the surface together with deep mantle circulation. These digital tools provide a new window into the intimate connections between plate tectonics and mantle dynamics, and can therefore be used for tectonic predictions, in principle. This contribution explores this assumption. First, initial conditions at 30, 20, 10 and 0 Ma are generated by driving a convective flow with imposed plate velocities at the surface. We then compute instantaneous mantle flows in response to the guessed temperature fields without imposing any boundary conditions. Plate boundaries self-consistently emerge at correct locations with respect to reconstructions, except for small plates close to subduction zones. As already observed for other types of instantaneous flow calculations, the structure of the top boundary layer and upper-mantle slab is the dominant character that leads to accurate predictions of surface velocities. Perturbations of the rheological parameters have little impact on the resulting surface velocities. We then compute fully dynamic model evolution from 30 and 10 to 0 Ma, without imposing plate boundaries or plate velocities. Contrary to instantaneous calculations, errors in kinematic predictions are substantial, although the plate layout and kinematics in several areas remain consistent with the expectations for the Earth. For these calculations, varying the rheological parameters makes a difference for plate boundary evolution. Also, identified errors in initial conditions contribute to first-order kinematic errors. This experiment shows that the tectonic predictions of dynamic models over 10 My are highly sensitive to uncertainties of rheological parameters and initial temperature field in comparison to instantaneous flow calculations. Indeed, the initial conditions and the rheological parameters can be good enough for an accurate prediction of instantaneous flow, but not for a prediction after 10 My of evolution. Therefore, inverse methods (sequential or data assimilation methods) using short-term fully dynamic evolution that predict surface kinematics are promising tools for a better understanding of the state of the Earth's mantle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an improved picture of the ongoing crustal deformation field for the Zagros Foldand- Thrust Belt continental collision zone by using an extensive combination of both novel and published GPS observations. The main results define the significant amount of oblique Arabia-Eurasia convergence currently being absorbed within the Zagros: right-lateral shear along theNWtrending Main Recent fault inNWZagros and accommodated between fold-andthrust structures and NS right-lateral strike-slip faults on Southern Zagros. In addition, taking into account the 1909-2016 instrumental seismic catalogue, we provide a statistical evaluation of the seismic/geodetic deformation-rate ratio for the area. On Northern Zagros and on the Turkish--Iranian Plateau, a moderate to large fraction (~49 and >60 per cent, respectively) of the crustal deformation occurs seismically. On the Sanandaj--Sirjan zone, the seismic/geodetic deformation-rate ratio suggests that a small to moderate fraction (<40 per cent) of crustal deformation occurs seismically; locally, the occurrence of large historic earthquakes (M ≥ 6) coupled with the high geodetic deformation, could indicate overdue M ≥ 6 earthquakes. On Southern Zagros, aseismic strain dominates crustal deformation (the ratio ranges in the 15-33 per cent interval). Such aseismic deformation is probably related to the presence of the weak evaporitic Hormuz Formation which allows the occurrence of large aseismic motion on both subhorizontal faults and surfaces of décollement. These results, framed into the seismotectonic framework of the investigated region, confirm that the fold-and-thrust-dominated deformation is driven by buoyancy forces; by contrast, the shear-dominated deformation is primary driven by plate stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We derive autocorrelations from ambient seismic noise to image the reflectivity of the subsurface and to extract the Moho depth beneath the stations for two different data sets in Central Europe. The autocorrelations are calculated by smoothing the spectrum of the data in order to suppress high amplitude, narrow-band signals of industrial origin, applying a phase autocorrelation algorithm and time-frequency domain phase-weighted stacking. The stacked autocorrelation results are filtered and analysed predominantly in the frequency range of 1-2 Hz. Moho depth is automatically picked inside uncertainty windows obtained from prior information. The processing scheme we developed is applied to data from permanent seismic stations located in different geological provinces across Europe, with varying Moho depths between 25 and 50 km, and to the mainly short period temporary PASSEQ stations along seismic profile POLONAISE P4. The autocorrelation results are spatially and temporarily stable, but show a clear correlation with the existence of cultural noise. On average, a minimum of six months of data is needed to obtain stable results. The obtained Moho depth results are in good agreement with the subsurface model provided by seismic profiling, receiver function estimates and the European Moho depth map. In addition to extracting the Moho depth, it is possible to identify an intracrustal layer along the profile, again closely matching the seismic model. For more than half of the broad-band stations, another change in reflectivity within the mantle is observed and can be correlated with the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary to the west and a mid-lithospheric discontinuity beneath the East European Craton. With the application of the developed autocorrelation processing scheme to different stations with varying crustal thicknesses, it is shown that Moho depth can be extracted independent of subsurface structure, when station coverage is low, when no strong seismic sources are present, and when only limited amounts of data are available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method has recently gained a resurgence of interest because of its new interpretation through the diffuse field approach. According to this theory, the HVSR measurement is linked to the Green's function retrieval. While the HVSR method is traditionally used to evaluate simple and shallow velocity model, we demonstrate that complex Earth' structure (that includes composite geological layering) can be assessed by choosing appropriate data processing and inversion scheme. In particular, we explore the effects of a strong lateral heterogeneity on the HVSR by using measurements along a vertical crater wall. However, wave propagation computation with lateral heterogeneity is inefficient to conduct an inversion. Then, to accelerate the forward calculation, we identified a simplified model consisting of an unbounded 2-D multilayer medium that allows describing the observed measurements with the use of a correction factor. The 2-D character comes from a nonstandard noise illumination related to the wind blowing perpendicularly to the crater walls. It is supported by several theoretical and experimental arguments. We also show that the H and V components can be retrieved independently, which may improve the sensitivity of the inversion at high frequency. To reduce the non-uniqueness of the problem, we consider the joint inversion of the H and HVSR's at several positions where the thicknesses of the layers were evaluated thanks to a large geological outcrop. The good agreement between the recovered velocity structure and the geology shows that the method is not limited to unbounded simple shallow structures, which opens the domains of application of the method to exploration geophysics or to hazard assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major part of the Earth's continental crust is evolved during the Archean, however, the mechanism for its formation is controversial. It could have formed either through horizontal accretion similar to the modern plate tectonic processes or by vertical accretion by plume activity. Here, we present the results of a new deep crustal seismic reflection Profiling, the DHARSEIS experiment conducted along a 200 km long Perur-Chikmagalur profile across the Archean Dharwar craton, to understand the crustal evolutionary processes during the Neoarchean. The data were processed using the Common Reflection Surface (CRS) stack method. Seismic images show distinctly different reflectivity patterns in the Mesoarchean Western and Neoarchean Eastern Dharwar Cratons (WDC and EDC), the two crustal blocks of the composite Dharwar craton. The WDC consists of a simple structure with a major part of the crust from 6 to 28 km displaying a gently dipping reflection fabric and a subhorizontal reflection fabric from 28 to 40 km except beneath the Chitradurga schist belt. On the other hand the EDC displays a complex reflectivity pattern, contrary to the simple crustal structure suggested by various other studies. A dipping Moho, oppositely dipping reflection fabric and a thrust fault are the major crustal features in the EDC. The present seismic study imaged a west-dipping reflection fabric extending from 34 to 43 km in the EDC, which is interpreted to represent an upper-mantle subduction zone. During this process the EDC was thrusted obliquely against the pre-existing proto-continent WDC and accreted to it. Oppositely dipping reflection fabrics with a crustal root at the convergence boundary suggest accretion of WDC and EDC during the Neoarchean orogeny. The collisional boundary coincides with the location of ~2.5 Ga Closepet granite. Seismic images suggest the Moho as a detachment boundary. The present study reveals a likely two-stage subduction-accretion process for the evolution of continental crust during the Neoarchean. Plate tectonic processes were responsible for the Neoarchean crustal growth in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a full-waveform detection method for non-impulsive seismic events, based on time-reversal principles. We use the strain Green's tensor as a matched filter, correlating it with continuous observed seismograms, to detect non-impulsive seismic events. We show that this is mathematically equivalent to an adjoint method for detecting earthquakes. We define the detection function, a scalar valued function, which depends on the stacked correlations for a group of stations. Event detections are given by the times at which the amplitude of the detection function exceeds a given value relative to the noise level. The method can make use of the whole seismic waveform or any combination of time-windows with different filters. It is expected to have an advantage compared to traditional detection methods for events that do not produce energetic and impulsive P waves, for example glacial events, landslides, volcanic events and transform-fault earthquakes for events which velocity structure along the path is relatively well known. Furthermore, the method has advantages over empirical Greens functions template matching methods, as it does not depend on records from previously detected events, and therefore is not limited to events occurring in similar regions and with similar focal mechanisms as these events. The method is not specific to any particular way of calculating the synthetic seismograms, and therefore complicated structural models can be used. This is particularly beneficial for intermediate size events that are registered on regional networks, for which the effect of lateral structure on the waveforms can be significant. To demonstrate the feasibility of the method, we apply it to two different areas located along the mid-oceanic ridge system west of Mexico where non-impulsive events have been reported. The first study area is between Clipperton and Siqueiros transform faults (9°N), during the time of two earthquake swarms, occurring in March 2012 and May 2016. The second area of interest is the Gulf of California where two swarms took place during July and September of 2015. We show that we are able to detect previously non-reported, non-impulsive events and recommend that this method be used together with more traditional template matching methods to maximize the number of detected events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we derived the first 3-D P-wave seismic attenuation images (QP) as well as new 3-D VP and VP/VS models for the crust in southeastern Sicily. We used a large data set of local seismic events occurring in the time span 1994-2013. The results of this tomographic study have important implications on the seismic behaviour of the region. Based on velocity and attenuation images, we identified distinct volumes characterized by different fluid content, which correlate well with seismicity distribution. Moreover, the obtained velocity and attenuation tomographies help us to provide a more complete picture of the crustal structure of the area. High VP, high QP and high VP/VS values have been obtained in the crustal basement, below a depth of 8 km, and may be interpreted as due to the presence of serpentinized peridotites. Accordingly, the new model for the degree of serpentinization, retrieved from VP values, shows that the basement has an average serpentinization value of 96 ± 3 vol.% at 8 km, decreasing to 44 ± 5 vol.% at about 18-20 km. Our joint interpretation of geophysical and petrophysical evidence suggests that the nature and composition of the Hyblean upper lithosphere may differ from accepted and longestablished geological models, which consider this lithospheric block a continuation of the Africa continental plate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a long-standing debate whether or not the 2010 M 8.8 Maule earthquake filled a pre-existing seismic gap in which no large earthquake occurred for about 200 yr. Utilizing the inversion approach of Wang et al. that considers elastic strain accumulation and strain release during the earthquake cycle and includes the fault-coupling state as prior information in coseismic slip modelling, we investigate the inter- and coseismic slip balance for the 2010 M 8.8 Maule earthquake. The coseismic slip model is obtained as the product of three components: the interseismic backslip rate, the strain accumulation time, and the fraction of coseismically released slip potency (the product of slip and slip area) that may either fully or partially release the local strain. We construct slip models using the Slab1.0 fault geometry, and constrain the strain accumulation time for the 2010 Maule earthquake based on historical large earthquakes in the region. The results demonstrate that two slip clusters (north and south of the hypocentre) are required to model the geodetically measured coseismic displacements. The slip patch south of the hypocentre is located in a strongly coupled zone, and possibly released the local strain completely. The slip area north of the hypocentre overlaps with the interseismically creeping zone in which strain buildup may be low. The northern slip patch released higher slip potency than accumulated since the last mega-event in 1751, suggesting a possible dynamic overshoot during coseismic rupture (under the assumption that the last major earthquake has reset the regional strain). Alternatively, the last big event may not have fully released the strain in this region. Our study reveals that the Maule earthquake, combing its coseismic and post-seismic slip over 1.3 yr, released ~67-72 per cent of the local strain. Remaining strain is concentrated mainly south of the hypocentre, with potency equivalent to an M 8.4 event considering strain accumulation for 259 yr (since 1751). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a magnetotelluric (MT) study in the northeastern part of the São Francisco Craton that encompasses an Archean-Proterozoic terrain, the Serrinha Block, breached by a rift basin developed mostly in Early Cretaceous times during the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Even though the MT sites are regularly spaced, the profiles have different orientations from one another, making the data distribution over the area highly uneven and therefore nonideal for 3-D modeling. However, the data set is very complex, with dimensionality analysis indicating prevalence of 3-D geoelectric structure. Results from 3-D inversion are evaluated for robustness and potentiality for yielding tectonic information. At upper crustal depths, the resulting 3-D model is coherent with surface geology, whereas at mid and lower crustal depths more cryptic structures are revealed, likely of Palaeoproterozoic age. The most striking features in the model are several strong (~1 Ω·m) crustal conductors beneath the central part of the Serrinha Block, which we attribute to a Palaeoproterozoic oceanic plate subduction and arc-continent collision event involving the Rio Itapicuru Greenstone Belt and the basement of the Serrinha Block. The west-dipping geometry of these conductors provides a constraint on subduction polarity and gives support to tectonic evolutionary models proposing that the Rio Itapicuru Belt was formed in an island arc environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of the shear wave velocity (vs) and shear wave quality factor (Qs) for the shallow structure below a site is necessary to characterize its site response. In the past, methods based on the analysis of seismic noise have been shown to be very efficient for providing a sufficiently accurate estimation of the vs versus depth at reasonable costs for engineering seismology purposes. In addition, a slight modification of the same method has proved to be able to provide realistic Qs versus depth estimates. In this study, data sets of seismic noise recorded by microarrays of seismic stations in different geological environments of Europe and Central Asia are used to calculate both vs and Qs versus depth profiles. Analogous to the generally adopted approach in seismic hazard assessment for mapping the average shear wave velocity in the uppermost 30m(vs30) as a proxy of the site response, this approachwas also applied to the quality factor within the uppermost 30 m (Qs30). A slightly inverse correlation between both parameters is found based on a methodological consistent determination for different sites. Consequently, a combined assessment of vs and Qs by seismic noise analysis has the potential to provide a more comprehensive description of the geological structure below a site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating orientations of seismic structures (reflections) and stratigraphic features (channels) is important for seismic interpretation, subsurface interpolation and geophysical inversion. Structure tensors, constructed as smoothed outer products of amplitude gradients, are commonly used to estimate seismic reflection normals, which uniquely define the reflection orientations. However, this conventional structure-tensor method often generates significant errors in estimating orientations of the reflections with steep and rapidly varying slopes. To better estimate reflection orientations, we propose to construct structure tensors in a new space, where the reflections are mostly flat or only slightly dipping and the variation of reflection slopes is reduced. We use these constructed structure tensors to compute reflection normals in this new space and then transform the normals back to obtain a better estimation of reflection orientations in the original space. Seismic stratigraphic features such as channels are often aligned within dipping reflections. It is not discussed previously by others to estimate orientations of such features directly from a seismic image. An ideal way to estimate stratigraphic orientations is to first extract a horizon surface with stratigraphic features, and then construct structure tensors with gradients on the surface to estimate the orientations of the features. However, extracting horizon surfaces can be a difficult and time-consuming task in practice. Fortunately, computing gradients on a horizon surface is only a local operation and is equivalent to directly compute directional derivatives along reflection slopes without picking horizons. Based on this observation, we propose to use an equivalent but more efficient way to estimate seismic stratigraphic orientations by using structure tensors constructed with the directional derivatives along reflections. We demonstrate the methods of estimating structural and stratigraphic orientations using 3-D synthetic and real examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The New Horizons mission to the Kuiper belt has recently revealed intriguing features on the surface of Charon, including a network of chasmata, cutting across or around a series of high topography features, conjoining to form a belt. It is proposed that this tectonic belt is a consequence of contraction/expansion episodes in the moon's evolution associated particularly with compaction, differentiation and geochemical reactions of the interior. The proposed scenario involves no need for solidification of a vast subsurface ocean and/or a warm initial state. This scenario is based on a new, detailed thermo-physical evolution model of Charon that includes multiple processes. According to the model, Charon experiences two contraction/expansion episodes in its history that may provide the proper environment for the formation of the tectonic belt. This outcome remains qualitatively the same, for several different initial conditions and parameter variations. The precise orientation of Charon's tectonic belt, and the cryovolcanic features observed south of the tectonic belt may have involved a planetary-scale impact, that occurred only after the belt had already formed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The appraisal of tomographic models, of fundamental importance towards better understanding the Earth's interior, consists in analysing their resolution and covariance. The discrete theory of Backus-Gilbert, solving all at once the linear problems of model estimation and appraisal, aims at evaluating weighted averages of the true model parameters. Contrary to damped least-squares techniques, one key advantage of Backus-Gilbert inversion is that no subjective regularization is needed to remove the non-uniqueness of the model solution. Indeed, it is often possible to identify unique linear combinations of the parameters even when the parameters themselves are not uniquely defined. In other words, the non-uniqueness can be broken by averaging rather than regularizing. Over the past few decades, many authors have considered that, in addition to a high computational cost, it could be a clumsy affair in the presence of data errors to practically implement the Backus-Gilbert approach to large-scale tomographic applications. In this study, we introduce and adapt to seismic tomography the Subtractive Optimally Localized Averages (SOLA) method, an alternative Backus-Gilbert formulation which retains all its advantages, but is more computationally efficient and versatile in the explicit construction of averaging kernels. As a leitmotiv, we focus on global-scale S-wave tomography and show that the SOLA method can successfully be applied to large-scale, linear and discrete tomographic problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some modern seismicity in the magnitude range of M 4 and M 6 in California and eastern North America preferentially occurs at the edges of past large ruptures. Once a large earthquake rupture has occurred, stress is concentrated at the edges of the rupture, and apparently this stress concentration can trigger earthquakes at or near the rupture edges many decades or even longer after a main shock. Furthermore, the modern M ≥ 4 earthquakes in the vicinity of a past main shock usually have the same focal mechanism as the earlier main shock. There are a number of examples of this in California and Nevada, where there is a statistically significant correlation of the locations of M ≥ 4 earthquakes and the edges of 19th and 20th century fault ruptures in Mw ≥ 6.5 earthquakes. In contrast, the M ≥ 4 earthquakes near the epicentres of future ruptures in California are randomly scattered around the fault with no concentration near the ends of the future fault rupture. The concentration of earthquakes near the ends of earlier large ruptures in California becomes progressively less pronounced as the smallest magnitude in the data set is reduced from M 4.0 to M 3.0. These observations also appear to be true for intraplate regions where aftershock sequences can last millennia. The identification of modern rupture-edge M ≥ 4 aftershocks can be used to help discover where and when past strong earthquakes took place, even if there is no historical record of the main shock. This is of great importance for seismic hazard studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new rotations that describe the relative positions and velocities of the Pacific and North America plates at 22 times during the past 19.7 Myr, offering ?1-Myr temporal resolution for studies of the geotectonic evolution of western North America and other plate boundary locations. Derived from ≈18 000 magnetic reversal, fracture zone and transform fault identifications from the Pacific-Antarctic-Nubia-North America plate circuit and the velocities of 935 GPS sites on the Pacific and North America plates, the new rotations and GPS-derived angular velocity indicate that the rate of motion between the two plates increased by ≈70 per cent from 19.7 to 9±1 Ma, but changed by less than 2 per cent since 8 Ma and even less since 4.2 Ma. The rotations further suggest that the relative plate direction has rotated clockwise for most of the past 20 Myr, with a possible hiatus from 9 to 5 Ma. This conflicts with previously reported evidence for a significant clockwise change in the plate direction at ≈8-6 Ma. Our new rotations indicate that Pacific plate motion became obliquely convergent with respect to the San Andreas Fault of central California at 5.2-4.2 Ma, in agreement with geological evidence for a Pliocene onset of folding and faulting in central California. Our reconstruction of the northern Gulf of California at 6.3 Ma differs by only 15-30 km from structurally derived reconstructions after including 3-4 km Myr-1 of geodetically measured slip between the Baja California Peninsula and Pacific plate. This implies an approximate 15-30 km upper bound for plate non-rigidity integrated around the global circuit at 6.3 Ma. A much larger 200±54 km discrepancy between our reconstruction of the northern Gulf of California at 12 Ma and that estimated from structural and marine geophysical observations suggests that faults in northwestern Mexico or possibly west of the Baja California Peninsula accommodated large amounts of obliquely divergent dextral shear from 12-6.3 Ma. Pacific-North America plate motion since 16 Myr estimated with our new rotations agrees well with structurally summed deformation along two transects of western North America between the Colorado Plateau and western California, with a difference as small as 40 km out of 760 km of margin-parallel motion. A strong resemblance between a 20-Myr-to-present flow line reconstructed with our new rotations and the traces of the 700-km-long Queen Charlotte Fault and continental slope west of Canada suggests that the plate margin geometry was influenced by the passage of the Pacific plate and Yakutat block. The new rotations also suggest that (1) oblique convergence west of Canada initiated at 12-11 Ma, 5-8 Myr earlier than previously estimated, (2) no significant margin-normal shortening has occurred in areas of Canada located east of the Haida Gwaii archipelago since 20 Ma and (3) Pacific plate underthrusting of Haida Gwaii has accommodated the margin-normal component of plate motion since 12-11 Ma. Our rotations suggest an ≈70 per cent increase in the rate that the Pacific plate has been consumed by subduction beneath the Aleutian arc since 19.7 Ma, with still-unknown consequences for the rate of arc magmatism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding earthquake clustering in space and time is important but also challenging because of complexities in earthquake patterns and the large and diverse nature of earthquake catalogues. Swarms are of particular interest because they likely result from physical changes in the crust, such as slow slip or fluid flow. Both swarms and clusters resulting from aftershock sequences can span a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Here we test and implement a new method to identify seismicity clusters of varying sizes and discriminate them from randomly occurring background seismicity. Our method searches for the closest neighbouring earthquakes in space and time and compares the number of neighbours to the background events in larger space/time windows. Applying our method to California's San Jacinto Fault Zone (SJFZ), we find a total of 89 swarm-like groups. These groups range in size from 0.14 to 7.23 km and last from 15 min to 22 d. The most striking spatial pattern is the larger fraction of swarms at the northern and southern ends of the SJFZ than its central segment, which may be related to more normal-faulting events at the two ends. In order to explore possible driving mechanisms, we study the spatial migration of events in swarms containing at least 20 events by fitting with both linear and diffusion migration models. Our results suggest that SJFZ swarms are better explained by fluid flow because their estimated linear migration velocities are far smaller than those of typical creep events while large values of best-fitting hydraulic diffusivity are found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planar faults are widely adopted during inversions to determine slip distributions and fault geometries using geodetic observations; however, little research has been conducted with respect to curved faults. We attribute this to the lack of an appropriate parameterized modelling method. In this paper, we present a curved-fault modelling method (CFMM) that describes a curved fault according to specific parameters, and we also develop a corresponding hybrid iterative inversion algorithm (HIIA) to perform inversions for parametric curved-fault geometries and slips. The results of the strike-component and dip-component synthetic tests show that a complex S-shaped fault surface and a circular slip distribution are successfully recovered, indicating the strong performance of the CFMM and HIIA methods. In addition, we describe and verify a scenario for determining the number of necessary geometrical parameters for the HIIA and examine the case study of the Wenchuan earthquake, which occurred on a complex listric fault surface. During the iteration process of the HIIA, both the fault geometry and slip distribution of the Beichuan and Pengguan faults converge to optimal values, indicating a Beichuan fault (BCF) model with a continuous listric shape and gradual steepening from the southwest to the northeast, which is highly consistent with geological survey results. Both the synthetic and real-world case studies show that the HIIA and the CMFF are superior to the conventional fault modelling method based on rectangular planes and that these models have the potential for use in more integrated research involving inversion studies, such as joint slip/curved-fault-geometry inversions that take into account data resolving power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While elasticity is a defining characteristic of the Earth's lithosphere, it is often ignored in numerical models of long-term tectonic processes in favour of a simpler viscoplastic description. Here we assess the consequences of this assumption on a well-studied geodynamic problem: the growth of normal faults at an extensional plate boundary.We conduct 2-D numerical simulations of extension in elastoplastic and viscoplastic layers using a finite difference, particle-in-cell numerical approach. Our models simulate a range of faulted layer thicknesses and extension rates, allowing us to quantify the role of elasticity on three key observables: fault-induced topography, fault rotation, and fault life span. In agreement with earlier studies, simulations carried out in elastoplastic layers produce rate-independent lithospheric flexure accompanied by rapid fault rotation and an inverse relationship between fault life span and faulted layer thickness. By contrast, models carried out with a viscoplastic lithosphere produce results that may qualitatively resemble the elastoplastic case, but depend strongly on the product of extension rate and layer viscosity U × ηL. When this product is high, fault growth initially generates little deformation of the footwall and hanging wall blocks, resulting in unrealistic, rigid block-offset in topography across the fault. This configuration progressively transitions into a regime where topographic decay associated with flexure is fully accommodated within the numerical domain. In addition, high U × ηL favours the sequential growth of multiple short-offset faults as opposed to a large-offset detachment. We interpret these results by comparing them to an analytical model for the fault-induced flexure of a thin viscous plate. The key to understanding the viscoplastic model results lies in the rate-dependence of the flexural wavelength of a viscous plate, and the strain rate dependence of the force increase associated with footwall and hanging wall bending. This behaviour produces unrealistic deformation patterns that can hinder the geological relevance of long-term rifting models that assume a viscoplastic rheology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ms ~ 7.7 Sarez-Pamir earthquake of 1911 February 18 is the largest instrumentally recorded earthquake in the Pamir region. It triggered one of the largest landslides of the past century, building a giant natural dam and forming Lake Sarez. As for many strong earthquakes from that time, information about source parameters of the Sarez-Pamir earthquake is limited due to the sparse observations. Here, we present the analysis of analogue seismic records of the Sarez-Pamir earthquake.We have collected, scanned and digitized 26 seismic records from 13 stations worldwide to relocate the epicentre and determine the event's depth (~26 km) and magnitude (mB7.3 and Ms7.7). The unusually good quality of the digitized waveforms allowed their modelling, revealing an NE-striking sinistral strike-slip focal mechanism in accordance with regional tectonics. The shallow depth and magnitude (Mw7.3) of the earthquake were confirmed. Additionally, we investigated the possible contribution of the landslide to the waveforms and present an alternative source model assuming the landslide and earthquake occurred in close sequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]