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Background Airborne fumigants and other hazardous chemicals inside unopened shipping containers may pose a risk to workers handling containers. Methods Grab air samples from 490 sealed containers arriving in New Zealand were analysed for fumigants and other hazardous chemicals. We also collected grab air samples of 46 containers immediately upon opening and measured the total concentration of volatile organic compounds in real-time during ventilation. Additive Mixture Values (AMV) were calculated using the New Zealand Workplace Exposure standard (WES) and ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of the 8-h, time-weighted average (TWA) exposure limit. Regression analyses assessed associations with container characteristics. Results Fumigants were detectable in 11.4% of sealed containers, with ethylene oxide detected most frequently (4.7%), followed by methyl bromide (3.5%). Other chemicals, mainly formaldehyde, were detected more frequently (84.7%). Fumigants and other chemicals exceeded the WES/TLV in 6.7%/7.8%, and 7.8%/20.0% of all containers, respectively. Correspondingly, they more frequently exceeded '1' for the AMV-TLV compared to the AMV-WES (25.7% versus 7.8%). In samples taken upon opening of doors, fumigants were detected in both fumigated and non-fumigated containers, but detection frequencies and exceedances of the WES, TLV, and AMVs were generally higher in fumigated containers. Detection frequencies for other chemicals were similar in fumigated and non-fumigated containers, and only formaldehyde exceeded both the WES and TLV in both container groups. Volatile compounds in container air reduced rapidly during ventilation. Some cargo types (tyres; personal hygiene, beauty and medical products; stone and ceramics; metal and glass; and pet food) and countries of origin (China) were associated with elevated airborne chemical and fumigant concentrations. Conclusion Airborne chemicals in sealed containers frequently exceed exposure limits, both in fumigated and non-fumigated containers, and may contribute to short-term peak exposures of workers unloading or inspecting containers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study assessed associations between occupational exposures and ischaemic heart disease (IHD) for males and females in the general and Māori populations (indigenous people of New Zealand). Methods Two surveys of the general adult [New Zealand Workforce Survey (NZWS); 2004–2006; n = 3003] and Māori population (Māori NZWS; 2009–2010; n = 2107), with information on occupational exposures, were linked with administrative health data and followed-up until December 2018. Cox proportional hazards regression (adjusted for age, deprivation, and smoking) was used to assess associations between organizational factors, stress, and dust, chemical and physical exposures, and IHD. Results Dust [hazard ratio (HR) 1.6, 95%CI 1.1–2.4], smoke or fumes (HR 1.5, 1.0–2.3), and oils and solvents (HR 1.5, 1.0–2.3) were associated with IHD in NZWS males. A high frequency of awkward or tiring hand positions was associated with IHD in both males and females of the NZWS (HRs 1.8, 1.1–2.8 and 2.4, 1.1–5.0, respectively). Repetitive tasks and working at very high speed were associated with IHD among NZWS females (HRs 3.4, 1.1–10.4 and 2.6, 1.2–5.5, respectively). Māori NZWS females working with vibrating tools and those exposed to a high frequency of loud noise were more likely to experience IHD (HRs 2.3, 1.1–4.8 and 2.1, 1.0–4.4, respectively). Exposure to multiple dust and chemical factors was associated with IHD in the NZWS males, as was exposure to multiple physical factors in males and females of the NZWS. Conclusions Exposures associated with an elevated IHD risk included dust, smoke or fumes, oils and solvents, awkward grip or hand movements, carrying out repetitive tasks, working at very high speed, loud noise, and working with tools that vibrate. Results were not consistently observed for males and females and between the general and Māori populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a New Zealand population-based case-control study we assessed associations with occupational exposure to electric shocks, extremely low-frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) and motor neurone disease using job-exposure matrices to assess exposure. Participants were recruited between 2013 and 2016. Associations with ever/never, duration, and cumulative exposure were assessed using logistic regression adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, education, smoking, alcohol consumption, sports, head or spine injury, and solvents, and was mutually adjusted for the other exposure. All analyses were repeated stratified by sex. An elevated risk was observed for having ever worked in a job with potential for electric shocks (odds ratio (OR) = 1.35, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.98, 1.86), with the strongest association for the highest level of exposure (OR = 2.01, 95% CI: 1.31, 3.09). Analysis by duration suggested a nonlinear association: Risk was increased for both short duration (<3 years; OR = 4.69, 95% CI: 2.25, 9.77) and long duration (>24 years; OR = 1.88; 95% CI: 1.05, 3.36) in a job with high level of electric shock exposure, with less pronounced associations for intermediate durations. No association with ELF-MF was found. Our findings provide support for an association between occupational exposure to electric shocks and motor neurone disease but did not show associations with exposure to work-related ELF-MF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Previous studies have reported high concentrations of airborne fumigants and other chemicals inside unopened shipping containers, but it is unclear whether this is reflective of worker exposures. Methods We collected personal 8-h air samples using a whole-air sampling method. Samples were analysed for 1,2-dibromoethane, chloropicrin, ethylene oxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen phosphide, methyl bromide, 1,2-dichloroethane, C2-alkylbenzenes, acetaldehyde, ammonia, benzene, formaldehyde, methanol, styrene, and toluene. Additive Mixture Values (AMVs) were calculated using the New Zealand Workplace Exposure standard (WES) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) of the 8-h, time-weighted average exposure limit. Linear regression was conducted to assess associations with work characteristics. Results We included 133 workers handling shipping containers, 15 retail workers unpacking container goods, 40 workers loading fumigated and non-fumigated export logs, and 5 fumigators. A total of 193 personal 8-h air measurements were collected. Exposures were generally low, with >50% below the limit of detection for most chemicals, and none exceeding the NZ WES, although formaldehyde exceeded the TLV in 26.2% of all measurements. The AMV-TLV threshold of 1 was exceeded in 29.0% of the measurements. Levels and detection frequencies of most chemicals varied little between occupational groups, although exposure to methyl bromide was highest in the fumigators (median 43 ppb) without exceeding the TLV of 1000 ppb. Duration spent inside the container was associated with significantly higher levels of ethylene oxide, C2-alkylbenzenes, and acetaldehyde, but levels were well below the TLV/WES. Exposure levels did not differ between workers handling fumigated and non-fumigated containers. Conclusions Personal exposures of workers handling container cargo in New Zealand were mainly below current exposure standards, with formaldehyde the main contributor to overall exposure. However, as it is not clear whether working conditions of participants included in this study were representative of this industry as a whole, and not all relevant exposures were measured, we cannot exclude the possibility that high exposures may occur in some workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Although cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk has been shown to differ between occupations, few studies have specifically evaluated the distribution of known CVD risk factors across occupational groups. This study assessed CVD risk factors in a range of occupational groups in New Zealand, stratified by sex and ethnicity. Methods Two probability-based sample surveys of the general New Zealand adult population (2004–2006; n = 3003) and of the indigenous people of New Zealand (Māori; 2009–2010; n = 2107), for which occupational histories and lifestyle factors were collected, were linked with routinely collected health data. Smoking, body mass index, deprivation, diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol were dichotomized and compared between occupational groups using age-adjusted logistic regression. Results The prevalence of all known CVD risk factors was greater in the Māori survey than the general population survey, and in males compared with females. In general for men and women in both surveys 'Plant and machine operators and assemblers' and 'Elementary workers' were more likely to experience traditional CVD risk factors, while 'Professionals' were less likely to experience these risk factors. 'Clerks' were more likely to have high blood pressure and male 'Agricultural and fishery workers' in the general survey were less likely to have high cholesterol, but this was not observed in the Māori survey. Male Māori 'Trades workers' were less likely to have high cholesterol and were less obese, while for the general population survey, this was not observed. Conclusions This study showed differences in the distribution of known CVD risk factors across occupational groups, as well as between ethnic groups and males and females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Sawmill workers have an increased risk of adverse respiratory outcomes, but knowledge about exposure–response relationships is incomplete. The objective of this study was to assess exposure determinants of dust, microbial components, resin acids, and terpenes in sawmills processing pine and spruce, to guide the development of department and task-based exposure prediction models. Methods 2474 full-shift repeated personal airborne measurements of dust, resin acids, fungal spores and fragments, endotoxins, mono-, and sesquiterpenes were conducted in 10 departments of 11 saw- and planer mills in Norway in 2013–2016. Department and task-based exposure determinants were identified and geometric mean ratios (GMRs) estimated using mixed model regression. The effects of season and wood type were also studied. Results The exposure ratio of individual components was similar in many of the departments. Nonetheless, the highest microbial and monoterpene exposure (expressed per hour) were estimated in the green part of the sawmills: endotoxins [GMR (95% confidence interval) 1.2 (1.0–1.3)], fungal spores [1.1 (1.0–1.2)], and monoterpenes [1.3 (1.1–1.4)]. The highest resin acid GMR was estimated in the dry part of the sawmills [1.4 (1.2–1.5)]. Season and wood type had a large effect on the estimated exposure. In particular, summer and spruce were strong determinants of increased exposure to endotoxin (GMRs [4.6 (3.5–6.2)] and [2.0 (1.4–3.0)], respectively) and fungal spores (GMRs [2.2 (1.7–2.8)] and [1.5 (1.0–2.1)], respectively). Pine was a strong determinant for increased exposure to both resin acid and monoterpenes. Work as a boilerman was associated with moderate to relatively high exposure to all components [1.0–1.4 (0.8–2.0)], although the estimates were based on 13–15 samples only. Cleaning in the saw, planer, and sorting of dry timber departments was associated with high exposure estimates for several components, whereas work with transportation and stock/finished goods were associated with low exposure estimates for all components. The department-based models explained 21–61% of the total exposure variances, 0–90% of the between worker (BW) variance, and 1–36% of the within worker (WW) variances. The task-based models explained 22–62% of the total variance, 0–91% of the BW variance, and 0–33% of the WW variance. Conclusions Exposure determinants in sawmills including department, task, season, and wood type differed for individual components, and explained a relatively large proportion of the total variances. Application of department/task-based exposure prediction models for specific exposures will therefore likely improve the assessment of exposure–response associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sawmill workers are exposed to wood dust (a well-known carcinogen), microorganisms, endotoxins, resin acids (diterpenes), and vapours containing terpenes, which may cause skin irritation, allergy, and respiratory symptoms including asthma. The health effects of most of these exposures are poorly understood as most studies measure only wood dust. The present study assessed these exposures in the Norwegian sawmill industry, which processes predominantly spruce and pine. Personal exposures of wood dust, resin acids, endotoxin, fungal spores and fragments, mono-, and sesquiterpenes were measured in 10 departments in 11 saw and planer mills. The geometric mean (GM) and geometric standard deviation (GSD) thoracic exposures were: 0.09 mg m−3 dust (GSD 2.6), 3.0 endotoxin units (EU) m−3 (GSD 4.9), 0.4 × 105 fungal spores m−3 (GSD 4.2), 2 × 105 fungal fragments m−3 (GSD 3.2), and 1560 ng m−3 of resin acids (GSD 5.5). The GM (GSD) inhalable exposures were: 0.72 mg m−3 dust (2.6), 17 EU m−3 (4.3), 0.4 × 105 fungal spores m−3 (3.8), and 7508 ng m−3 (4.4) of resin acids. The overall correlation between the thoracic and inhalable exposure was strong for resin acid (r p = 0.84), but moderate for all other components (r p = 0.34–0.64). The GM (GSD) exposure to monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes were 1105 µg m−3 (7.8) and 40 µg m−3 (3.9), respectively. Although mean exposures were relatively low, the variance was large, with exposures regularly exceeding the recommended occupational exposure limits. The exposures to spores and endotoxins were relatively high in the dry timber departments, but exposures to microbial components and mono-and sesquiterpenes were generally highest in areas where green (undried) timber was handled. Dust and resin acid exposure were highest in the dry areas of the sawmills. Low to moderate correlation between components (r p ranging from 0.02 to 0.65) suggests that investigations of exposure–response associations for these components (both individually and combined) are feasible in future epidemiological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess wood dust exposures and determinants in joineries and furniture manufacturing and to evaluate the efficacy of specific interventions on dust emissions under laboratory conditions. Also, in a subsequent follow-up study in a small sample of joinery workshops, we aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate a cost-effective and practicable intervention to reduce dust exposures. Methods: Personal inhalable dust (n = 201) was measured in 99 workers from 10 joineries and 3 furniture-making factories. To assess exposure determinants, full-shift video exposure monitoring (VEM) was conducted in 19 workers and task-based VEM in 32 workers (in 7 joineries and 3 furniture factories). We assessed the efficacy of vacuum extraction on hand tools and the use of vacuum cleaners instead of sweeping and dry wiping under laboratory conditions. These measures were subsequently implemented in three joinery workshops with 'high' (>4 mg m-3) and one with 'low' (<2 mg m-3) baseline exposures. We also included two control workshops (one 'low' and one 'high' exposure workshop) in which no interventions were implemented. Exposures were measured 4 months prior and 4 months following the intervention. Results: Average (geometric means) exposures in joinery and furniture making were 2.5 mg m-3 [geometric standard deviations (GSD) 2.5] and 0.6 mg m-3 (GSD 2.3), respectively. In joinery workers cleaning was associated with a 3.0-fold higher (P < 0.001) dust concentration compared to low exposure tasks (e.g. gluing), while the use of hand tools showed 3.0- to 11.0-fold higher (P < 0.001) exposures. In furniture makers, we found a 5.4-fold higher exposure (P < 0.001) with using a table/ circular saw. Laboratory efficiency experiments showed a 10-fold decrease in exposure (P < 0.001) when using a vacuum cleaner. Vacuum extraction on hand tools combined with a downdraft table reduced exposures by 42.5% for routing (P < 0.1) and 85.5% for orbital sanding (P < 0.001). Following intervention measures in joineries, a borderline statistically significant (P < 0.10) reduction in exposure of 30% was found in workshops with 'high' baseline exposures, but no reduction was shown in the workshop with 'low' baseline exposures. Conclusions: Wood dust exposure is high in joinery workers and (to a lesser extent) furniture makers with frequent use of hand tools and cleaning being key drivers of exposure. Vacuum extraction on hand tools and alternative cleaning methods reduced workplace exposures substantially, but may be insufficient to achieve compliance with current occupational exposure limits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupation and industry classifications are used in epidemiological studies to classify study subjects according to their job and subsequently to study risk by job, to infer social class indicators, or to infer exposure to specific agents through job-exposure matrices. However, documentation on methodological aspects concerning the use of occupation and industry classifications is sparse within epidemiology. This paper reviews the diverse applications of occupation and industry classifications in population-based epidemiological studies. The different classifications in use are discussed, and criteria are given for choosing a classification in an epidemiological study. Finally, the reliability of coding for occupation and industry is reviewed. A further standardization of the use of occupation and industry classifications in epidemiology is recommended, in order to facilitate future comparisons between studies and fully exploit their possibilities, especially when occupational exposures are to be inferred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupation as a welder has been associated with a 25%–40% increase in lung cancer risk. This study aims to elucidate to what extent confounding by smoking and asbestos drives this association and to evaluate the role of welding-related exposures such as chromium. The study included 2,197 male incident lung cancer cases and 2,295 controls from Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and the United Kingdom from 1998 to 2001. Information on risk factors was collected through face-to-face interviews. Experts assessed exposure to 70 agents, and risk estimates were adjusted for smoking and occupational exposures. Occupation as a welder/flame cutter (prevalence controls: 3.7%) was associated with an odds ratio of 1.36 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00, 1.86) after adjustment for smoking and occupational exposures including asbestos. An odds ratio of 1.18 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.38) was found for welding fumes (prevalence controls: 22.8%), increasing to 1.38 for more than 25 exposure years (95% CI: 1.09, 1.75). A duration-response association was also observed for mild steel welding without chromium exposure. In this population, occupational exposure to welding fumes accounted for approximately 4% of lung cancer cases, to which both stainless and mild steel welding contributed equally. Given that welding remains a common task for many workers, exposure to welding fumes represents an important risk factor for lung cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to fuel from cooking and heating has not been studied in Europe, where lung cancer rates are high and many residents have had a long tradition of burning coal and unprocessed biomass. Study subjects included 2,861 cases and 3,118 controls recruited during 1998-2002 in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom. The odds ratio of lung cancer associated with solid fuel use was 1.22 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04, 1.44) for cooking or heating, 1.37 (95% CI: 0.90, 2.09) for solid fuel only for cooking, and 1.24 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.47) for solid fuels used for both cooking and heating. Risk increased relative to the percentage of time that solid fuel was used for cooking (p(trend) < 0.0001), while no risk increase was detected for solid fuel used for heating. The odds ratio of lung cancer in whole-life users of solid cooking fuel was 1.80 (95% CI: 1.35, 2.40). Switching to nonsolid fuels resulted in a decrease in risk. The odds ratio for the longest duration of time since switching was 0.76 (95% CI: 0.63, 0.92). The data suggest a modest increased risk of lung cancer related to solid-fuel use for cooking rather than heating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background To examine the association between occupation and leukaemia. Methods We interviewed 225 cases (aged 20–75 years) notified to the New Zealand Cancer Registry during 2003–04, and 471 controls randomly selected from the Electoral Roll collecting demographic details, information on potential confounders and a comprehensive employment history. Associations between occupation and leukaemia were analysed using logistic regression adjusted for gender, age, ethnicity and smoking. Results Elevated odds ratios (ORs) were observed in agricultural sectors including horticulture/fruit growing (OR: 2.62, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.51, 4.55), plant nurseries (OR: 7.51, 95% CI: 1.85, 30.38) and vegetable growing (OR: 3.14, 95% CI: 1.18, 8.40); and appeared greater in women (ORs: 4.71, 7.75 and 7.98, respectively). Elevated ORs were also observed in market farmers/crop growers (OR: 1.84, 95% CI: 1.12, 3.02), field crop/vegetable growers (OR: 3.98, 95% CI: 1.46, 10.85), market gardeners (OR: 5.50, 95% CI: 1.59, 19.02), and nursery growers/workers (OR: 4.23, 95% CI: 1.34, 13.35); also greater in women (ORs: 3.48, 7.62, 15.74 and 11.70, respectively). These elevated ORs were predominantly for chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL). Several associations persisted after semi-Bayes adjustment. Elevated ORs were observed in rubber/plastics products machine operators (OR: 3.76, 95% CI: 1.08, 13.08), predominantly in plastic product manufacturing. CLL was also elevated in tailors and dressmakers (OR: 7.01, 95% CI: 1.78, 27.68), cleaners (OR: 2.04, 95% CI: 1.00, 4.14) and builders labourers (OR: 4.03, 95% CI: 1.30, 12.53). Conclusions These findings suggest increased leukaemia risks associated with certain agricultural, manufacturing, construction and service occupations in New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Three recent studies have reported a decreased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) for high ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure. Methods We conducted a multicentre case–control study during 1998–2004 in France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Spain, comprising 1518 cases of NHL, 268 cases of Hodgkin lymphoma, 242 cases of multiple myeloma and 2124 population or hospital controls. We collected information on sensitivity to sun and personal exposure to UV radiation in childhood and adulthood via interview, and assessed occupational exposure to UV radiation from the occupational history. Results The risk of Hodgkin and NHL was increased for increasing skin sensitivity to the sun [odds ratio (OR) for no suntan vs very brown 2.35, 95% CI 0.94–5.87 and 1.39, 95% CI 1.03–1.87, respectively]. The risk of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma was reduced for increasing adult personal (OR for highest vs lowest quartile of exposure in free days 0.62, 95% CI 0.44–0.87) and for occupational exposure to UV radiation (OR for highest vs lowest exposure tertile 0.63, 95% CI 0.37–1.04). The risk of multiple myeloma was increased for personal exposure to UV radiation during adulthood (OR for highest vs lowest quartile of exposure in free days 1.49, 95% CI 0.88–2.50). A protective effect was observed for use of sun lamps for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (OR for 25+ times vs never 0.63, 95% CI 0.38–1.03). Conclusions The hypothesis of a protective effect of UV radiation on lymphoma is supported by our results. The underlying mechanisms might differ from those operating in skin carcinogenesis. The increased risk of multiple myeloma is worth replication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]