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Meningococcal disease is a widely distributed complex disease affecting all age categories. It can cause severe meningitis and septicemia, especially in unvaccinated infants and young children. The causative agent, Neisseria meningitidis (Nm), can be phenotypically and genetically differentiated into serogroups and sequence types (STs) and has a highly dynamic population structure. To obtain a deeper understanding of the epidemiology of Nm, we sequenced seven Nm genomes. Large-scale genomic analysis was conducted with these 7 Nm genomes, 27 additional Nm genomes from GenBank, and 4 other Neisseria genomes. We observed extensive homologous recombination in all gene functional categories among different Nm genomes. Homologous recombination is so frequent that it has resulted in numerous chimeric open reading frames, including genes in the capsule biosynthesis cluster and loci targeted by commercial vaccines. Our results reveal that, despite widespread use, evolutionary relationships inferred from the standard seven-gene multilocus sequence typing (MLST) method could not predict virulence gene content or strain phenotype. In fact, up to 28% of the virulence-associated genes could differ between strains of identical STs. Consistent with previous studies, we found that allelic recombination is also associated with alterations in antibiotic susceptibility. Overall, these findings emphasize the extensive genomic plasticity of Nm and the limitations of standard molecular methods to quantify this genotypic and phenotypic diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genome-wide nucleotide composition varies widely among species. Despite extensive research, the source of genome-wide nucleotide composition diversity remains elusive. Yeast mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) are highly A + T rich, and they provide a unique opportunity to study the evolution of AT-biased landscape. In this study, we sequenced ten complete mitogenomes of the Saccharomycodes ludwigii yeast with 8% G + C content, the lowest genome-wide %(G + C) in all published genomes to date. The S. ludwigii mitogenomes have high densities of short tandem repeats but severely underrepresented mononucleotide repeats. Comparative population genomics of these record-setting A + T-rich genomes shows dynamic indel mutations and strong mutation bias toward A/T. Indel mutations play a greater role in genomic variation among very closely related strains than nucleotide substitutions. Indels have resulted in presence–absence polymorphism of tRNAArg (ACG) among S. ludwigii mitogenomes. Interestingly, these mitogenomes have undergone recombination, a genetic process that can increase G + C content by GC-biased gene conversion. Finally, the expected equilibrium G + C content under mutation pressure alone is higher than observed G + C content, suggesting existence of mechanisms other than AT-biased mutation operating to increase A/T. Together, our findings shed new lights on mechanisms driving extremely AT-rich genomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of genetic and phenotypic variation is fundamental for understanding the dynamics of bacterial genome evolution and untangling the evolution and epidemiology of bacterial pathogens. Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is among the most intriguing bacterial pathogens in genomic studies due to its dynamic population structure and complex forms of pathogenicity. Extensive genomic variation within identical clonal complexes (CCs) in Nm has been recently reported and suggested to be the result of homologous recombination, but the extent to which recombination contributes to genomic variation within identical CCs has remained unclear. In this study, we sequenced two Nm strains of identical serogroup (C) and multi-locus sequence type (ST60), and conducted a systematic analysis with an additional 34 Nm genomes. Our results revealed that all gene content variation between the two ST60 genomes was introduced by homologous recombination at the conserved flanking genes, and 94.25% or more of sequence divergence was caused by homologous recombination. Recombination was found in genes associated with virulence factors, antigenic outer membrane proteins, and vaccine targets, suggesting an important role of homologous recombination in rapidly altering the pathogenicity and antigenicity of Nm. Recombination was also evident in genes of the restriction and modification systems, which may undermine barriers to DNA exchange. In conclusion, homologous recombination can drive both gene content variation and sequence divergence in Nm. These findings shed new light on the understanding of the rapid pathoadaptive evolution of Nm and other recombinogenic bacterial pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]