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Discovering transiting exoplanets with relatively long orbital periods (>10 d) is crucial to facilitate the study of cool exoplanet atmospheres (T eq < 700 K) and to understand exoplanet formation and inward migration further out than typical transiting exoplanets. In order to discover these longer period transiting exoplanets, long-term photometric, and radial velocity campaigns are required. We report the discovery of TOI-2447 b (=NGTS-29 b), a Saturn-mass transiting exoplanet orbiting a bright (T = 10.0) Solar-type star (Teff = 5730 K). TOI-2447 b was identified as a transiting exoplanet candidate from a single transit event of 1.3 per cent depth and 7.29 h duration in TESS Sector 31 and a prior transit event from 2017 in NGTS data. Four further transit events were observed with NGTS photometry which revealed an orbital period of P = 69.34 d. The transit events establish a radius for TOI-2447 b of |$0.865 \pm 0.010\, \rm R_{\rm J}$|⁠ , while radial velocity measurements give a mass of |$0.386 \pm 0.025\, \rm M_{\rm J}$|⁠. The equilibrium temperature of the planet is 414 K, making it much cooler than the majority of TESS planet discoveries. We also detect a transit signal in NGTS data not caused by TOI-2447 b, along with transit timing variations and evidence for a ∼150 d signal in radial velocity measurements. It is likely that the system hosts additional planets, but further photometry and radial velocity campaigns will be needed to determine their parameters with confidence. TOI-2447 b/NGTS-29 b joins a small but growing population of cool giants that will provide crucial insights into giant planet composition and formation mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two planetary systems, TOI-942 and TOI-421, share many similar characteristics, apart from their ages (50 Myr and 9 Gyr). Each of the stars hosts two sub-Neptune-like planets at similar orbits and in similar mass ranges. In this paper, we aim to investigate whether the similarity of the host stars and configuration of the planetary systems can be taken as proof that the two systems were formed and evolved in a similar way. In paper I of this series, we performed a comparative study of these two systems using three-dimensional (3D) modelling of atmospheric escape and its interaction with the stellar wind, for the four planets. We demonstrated that though the strong wind of the young star has a crucial effect on observable signatures, its effect on the atmospheric mass loss is minor in the evolutionary context. Here, we use atmosphere evolution models to track the evolution of planets in the younger system TOI-942 and also to constrain the past of the TOI-421 system. We demonstrate that despite all the similarities, the two planetary systems are on two very different evolutionary pathways. The inner planet in the younger system, TOI-942, will likely lose all of its atmosphere and become a super-Earth-like planet, while the outer planet will become a typical sub-Neptune. Concerning the older system, TOI-421, our evolution modelling suggests that they must have started their evolution with very substantial envelopes, which can be a hint of formation beyond the snow line. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At young ages, when radiation from the host star is high, and the planet is hot and inflated after formation, planetary atmospheric mass-loss can be extremely strong compared to older planets. In turn, stellar winds are faster and denser for young stars compared to evolved main-sequence stars. Their interaction with escaping planetary atmospheres can substantially affect atmospheric mass-loss rates, as well as the observable signatures of escaping atmospheres, with both effects expected to occur differently for young and evolved planets. We perform a comparative study of two systems around stars of similar masses but very different ages (50 Myr and 9 Gyr): TOI-942 and TOI-421. Both stars host two sub-Neptune-like planets at similar orbits and in similar mass ranges, which allows a direct comparison of the atmospheric escape and interactions with the stellar winds in the young and old systems. We perform the 3D atmospheric modelling of the four planets in TOI-942 and TOI-421 systems and make the theoretical predictions of possible observational signatures in Ly α absorption. We find that accounting for the stellar wind interacting with planetary atmospheres is crucial for the interpretation of the observations for young planets. Additionally, we show that a particular energy distribution along the XUV spectra has a minor effect on the atmospheric mass-loss rates, but it is of crucial importance for modelling the Ly α absorption and therefore for interpretation of observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-resolution precision spectroscopy provides a multitude of robust techniques for probing exoplanetary atmospheres. We present multiple VLT/ESPRESSO transit observations of the hot-Jupiter exoplanet WASP-19b with previously published but disputed atmospheric features from low resolution studies. Through spectral synthesis and modelling of the Rossiter–McLaughlin (RM) effect we calculate stellar, orbital and physical parameters for the system. From narrow-band spectroscopy we do not detect any of H  i , Fe  i , Mg  i , Ca  i , Na  i , and K  i neutral species, placing upper limits on their line contrasts. Through cross-correlation analyses with atmospheric models, we do not detect Fe  i and place a 3σ upper limit of |$\log \, (X_{\textrm {Fe}}/X_\odot) \approx -1.83\, \pm \, 0.11$| on its mass fraction, from injection and retrieval. We show the inability to detect the presence of H2O for known abundances, owing to lack of strong absorption bands, as well as relatively low S/N ratio. We detect a barely significant peak (3.02 ± 0.15 σ) in the cross-correlation map for TiO, consistent with the sub-solar abundance previously reported. This is merely a hint for the presence of TiO and does not constitute a confirmation. However, we do confirm the presence of previously observed enhanced scattering towards blue wavelengths, through chromatic RM measurements, pointing to a hazy atmosphere. We finally present a reanalysis of low-resolution transmission spectra of this exoplanet, concluding that unocculted starspots alone cannot explain previously detected features. Our reanalysis of the FORS2 spectra of WASP-19b finds a ∼100× sub-solar TiO abundance, precisely constrained to |$\log \, X_{\textrm {TiO}} \approx -7.52 \pm 0.38$|⁠ , consistent with the TiO hint from ESPRESSO. We present plausible paths to reconciliation with other seemingly contradicting results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]