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Objectives Previous research in the United States suggests contextual income mobility may play a role in explaining the disparities between life expectancy in the United States and peer countries. This article aims to extend previous research by estimating the consequences of average individual exposure to mobility regimes during childhood and adolescence on adult health. Methods This study draws its data from two longitudinal datasets that track the county of residence of respondents during childhood and adolescence, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997. We implement marginal structural models to assess the association of the average exposure to county income mobility on five health outcomes and behaviors. Results The results are only partially consistent with a systematic association between exposure to income mobility and health outcomes. Evidence obtained from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth suggests less income mobility might increase the probability of smoking by age 30. Discussion The paper provides a precise assessment of the hypothesis that childhood exposure to income mobility regimes may influence health status through behavior later in life and contribute to longevity gaps. Only partial evidence on smoking suggests an association between income mobility and health, so we discuss potential reasons for the disparities in results with previous research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research contributes to social movement framing theory about frame variation, along with the social problems literature on child protectionism. I extend the theorizing on frames by arguing that frame variation can be a response to new agendas and goals of countermovements and opponents. Specifically, for opponents to rights activism, frame variation can be reaction to the assertion of rights for new protagonists, specifically their entry into new spaces. This study analyzes frame variation of the most deleterious child protectionist claims about stranger danger, assertions that the presence of racial, gender, and sexual others in public spaces will harm children. This paper is a content analysis of political flyers and messages developed by Religious Right campaigns at the state and municipal level between 1974 and 2013; these campaigns framed gay men and transgender woman as threats to children in classrooms and bathrooms. For both gay men and transgender women, these claims were most common at the start of rights advocacy. I argue that challengers make the most overt, deleterious arguments about harm to children when new groups initially advocate for legal rights and access to new spaces; as marginalized groups become more familiar and less "strange," challengers make more covert claims about these groups, as stranger danger claims have waning cultural and political resonance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background This study examined the trends and patterns of opioid and non-opioid pharmacotherapy use among a large national sample of privately insured pediatric patients with cancer in the United States. Materials and Methods We identified pediatric (aged < 21) patients diagnosed with central nervous system (CNS), lymphoma, gonadal, leukemia, or bone cancer from MarketScan data 2005-2019. We examined the proportion of patients who filled a prescription for the following 5 types of pharmacotherapy: opioid, anticonvulsant, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), antidepressant, and muscle relaxant during active cancer treatment. We assessed the trends and patterns in pharmacotherapy using multivariable logistic regressions. Results Among 4174 patients included, 2979 (71%) had an opioid prescription; 746 (18%), 384 (9%), 202 (5%), and 169 (4%) had anticonvulsant, NSAID, antidepressant and muscle relaxant prescriptions, respectively. Multivariable logistic regression showed a nonlinear trend in the use of opioids among pediatric patients with cancer over time such that use slightly increased until 2012 (OR of 1.40 [95% CI, 1.12-1.73] for 2012 vs. 2006) but then decreased thereafter (OR of 0.51 [0.37-0.68] for 2018 vs. 2012). The use of anticonvulsants, NSAIDs, and muscle relaxants increased significantly linearly over time (all P  < .005). Conclusion There has been a downward trend in the use of opioids in recent years among pediatric patients with cancer and an upward trend in the use of non-opioid pharmacotherapy for pain management potentially as an alternative to opioids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on a large cache of letters to John and Frances Gunther after the death of their son as well as memoirs and fiction by bereaved parents, this essay challenges the assumptions of secularization that infuse histories of twentieth-century American medicine. Many parents who experienced the death of children during the postwar period relied heavily on religion to help make sense of the tragedies medicine could not prevent. Parental accounts included expression of belief in divine intervention and the power of prayer, gratitude for God's role in minimizing suffering, confidence in the existence of an afterlife, and acceptance of the will of God. Historians seeking to understand how parents and families understood both the delivery of medical care and the cultural authority of medical science must integrate an understanding of religious experiences and faith into their work. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper will explore the application of an account of justice in health and health care to the special case of children. It is tempting to hold that children require no special treatment in an account of just health care; justice requires guaranteeing access to at least basic health care services to all persons, whatever their age group, within the constraints of a society's resources. However, I will argue that for a number of reasons we need to address what justice requires specifically for children from the health care system, even if the answer must be embedded within a general account of justice in health and health care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT This paper examines the trend in the fertility difference between the South and the remainder of the United States--a differential which has existed since colonial times. The paper begins with a consideration of the reasons why there might be a regional fertility differential. The rest of the paper examines the trend in this differential. It is found that the long-standing higher fertility of the South, relative to the rest of the country, has ceased. But this does not mean that the differential has disappeared. The South currently has lower levels of fertility than the non-South, and this is because southerners prefer fewer children than nonsoutherners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background La Crosse virus (LACV) is the most common neuroinvasive arboviral infection in children in the United States. However, data regarding predictors of disease severity and neurologic outcome are limited. Additionally, long-term neurologic and neurobehavioral outcomes remain relatively sparse. Methods This was a single-center, retrospective cohort study, followed by recruitment for a cross-sectional analysis of long-term neurobehavioral outcomes, among children aged 0–18 years with proven or probable LACV neuroinvasive disease (LACV-ND) between January 2009 and December 2018. Case ascertainment was assured by International Classification of Diseases , Ninth and Tenth Revision , Clinical Modification codes cross-referenced with laboratory results detecting LACV. Demographics, diagnostics, radiographs, and outcomes were evaluated. Recruitment of patients with prior diagnosis of LACV-ND occurred from January 2020 to March 2020, with assessment performed by validated pediatric questionnaires. Results One-hundred fifty-two children (83 males; median age, 8 years [interquartile range, 5–11.5 years]) were diagnosed with proven (n = 61 [47%]) and probable (n = 91 [60%]) LACV-ND. Sixty-five patients (43%) had severe disease. Altered mental status (AMS) (odds ratio [OR], 6.36 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 2.03–19.95]; P =.0002) and seizures at presentation (OR, 10.31 [95% CI, 3.45–30.86]; P =.0001) were independent predictors of severe disease. Epileptiform discharges on electroencephalogram (EEG) were independently associated with epilepsy diagnosis at follow-up (OR, 13.45 [95% CI, 1.4–128.77]; P =.024). Fifty-four patients were recruited for long-term neurobehavioral follow-up, with frequent abnormal assessments identified (19%–54%) irrespective of disease severity. Conclusions Severe disease was observed frequently among children with LACV-ND. Seizures and AMS at presentation were independent predictors of severe disease. EEG may help determine long-term epilepsy risk. Long-term neurobehavioral issues are frequent and likely underrecognized among children with LACV-ND. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Retrospective measures of childhood socioeconomic status (SES) in cohort studies of aging that first observe people late in life—such as the Health and Retirement Study (HRS)—are widely used. However, their measurement validity and reliability are unknown. We assess the reliability and validity of the HRS's retrospective measures of parental education and childhood family finances. Methods We use records for 6,343 HRS sample members who were children in 1940 that have been linked to records from the complete-count 1940 U.S. Census. We assess interrater reliability by comparing (a) retrospective reports of childhood SES collected from sample members in the 1992–2018 HRS to (b) prospective measures of parallel concepts collected from HRS sample members' parents in the 1940 Census. We assess predictive validity by comparing the results of analyses that model later-life outcomes as a function of childhood SES as measured both prospectively and retrospectively. Results Interrater reliabilities of retrospective measures of parental education are high; however, the same is not true of the retrospective measure of childhood family finances. Both retrospective and prospective measures of childhood SES are predictive of later-life outcomes, and with similar strengths and directions of associations for most outcomes. Discussion Researchers who rely on retrospective indicators of childhood SES from the HRS should be aware of their measurement properties. They are measured with error, and that error modestly attenuates estimates of their associations with later-life outcomes. However, prospective and retrospective measures of childhood SES have similar predictive validity. These findings should reassure researchers who rely on retrospective measures of childhood SES in the HRS and similarly designed surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Predominance of 2 antigenically drifted influenza viruses during the 2019–2020 season offered an opportunity to assess vaccine effectiveness against life-threatening pediatric influenza disease from vaccine-mismatched viruses in the United States. Methods We enrolled children aged <18 years admitted to the intensive care unit with acute respiratory infection across 17 hospitals. Respiratory specimens were tested using reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction for influenza viruses and sequenced. Using a test-negative design, we estimated vaccine effectiveness comparing odds of vaccination in test-positive case patients vs test-negative controls, stratifying by age, virus type, and severity. Life-threating influenza included death or invasive mechanical ventilation, vasopressors, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, dialysis, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Results We enrolled 159 critically ill influenza case-patients (70% ≤8 years; 51% A/H1N1pdm09 and 25% B-Victoria viruses) and 132 controls (69% were aged ≤8 years). Among 56 sequenced A/H1N1pdm09 viruses, 29 (52%) were vaccine-mismatched (A/H1N1pdm09/5A+156K) and 23 (41%) were vaccine-matched (A/H1N1pdm09/5A+187A,189E). Among sequenced B-lineage viruses, majority (30 of 31) were vaccine-mismatched. Effectiveness against critical influenza was 63% (95% confidence interval [CI], 38% to 78%) and similar by age. Effectiveness was 75% (95% CI, 49% to 88%) against life-threatening influenza vs 57% (95% CI, 24% to 76%) against non-life-threating influenza. Effectiveness was 78% (95% CI, 41% to 92%) against matched A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses, 47% (95% CI, –21% to 77%) against mismatched A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses, and 75% (95% CI, 37% to 90%) against mismatched B-Victoria viruses. Conclusions During a season when vaccine-mismatched influenza viruses predominated, vaccination was associated with a reduced risk of critical and life-threatening influenza illness in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth obesity has become increasingly prevalent, with 34.5% of US adolescents 12–19 years old estimated to have overweight or obesity. Disordered eating and weight concern peak in adolescence, and overeating to cope with negative emotions can affect long-term health and obesity risk. Parents significantly influence adolescent diet quality, and parental stress may influence parenting behaviors that increase the risk for stress-motivated eating and obesity in adolescents. Chronic or repeated exposure to parental stress may lead to stress-related neurophysiological changes that promote consumption of palatable foods and obesogenic eating habits in adolescents. Understanding how parental stress influences adolescents' eating behavior may reveal novel access points for reducing adolescent obesity. Here, we aim to provide a new stress-focused framework for developing intervention strategies targeted at obesity prevention in adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network conducts population-based surveillance of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among 8-year-old children in multiple US communities. From 2000 to 2016, investigators at ADDM Network sites classified ASD from collected text descriptions of behaviors from medical and educational evaluations which were reviewed and coded by ADDM Network clinicians. It took at least 4 years to publish data from a given surveillance year. In 2018, we developed an alternative case definition utilizing ASD diagnoses or classifications made by community professionals. Using data from surveillance years 2014 and 2016, we compared the new and previous ASD case definitions. Compared with the prevalence based on the previous case definition, the prevalence based on the new case definition was similar for 2014 and slightly lower for 2016. Sex and race/ethnicity prevalence ratios were nearly unchanged. Compared with the previous case definition, the new case definition's sensitivity was 86% and its positive predictive value was 89%. The new case definition does not require clinical review and collects about half as much data, yielding more timely reporting. It also more directly measures community identification of ASD, thus allowing for more valid comparisons among communities, and reduces resource requirements while retaining measurement properties similar to those of the previous definition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the threat of school shootings, lockdown drills have become commonplace in K–12 schools throughout the United States. Educators, parents, and others continue to debate the potential disruptive and traumatizing impact drills have on children. A small number of quantitative studies have examined the effects of lockdown drills on students' perceptions of safety, preparedness for crises, and fear and anxiety. Less is known about children's actual lived experiences of lockdown drills. This pilot child-centered qualitative study explored how children ages eight to 11 thought and felt about their experiences of school lockdown drills. Fear was found to be their common emotional response to the drill and, to a lesser extent, so were feelings of safety, annoyance, and excitement. Although children were found to have good understanding of what to do in lockdown drills, they were not always clear about what the purpose of the drills was and what threats the drills were intended to protect against. These findings support professional and advocacy groups' recommendations for planning and implementing lockdown drills and offer original recommendations from children's points of view on ways to mitigate negative outcomes of drills for students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In response to the rapidly unfolding coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in spring 2020, we developed a caregiver-report measure to understand the extent to which children and families were exposed to events related to COVID-19 and their perceptions of its impact. This article reports on the factor structure and psychometric properties of this measure.Methods: The COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Scales (CEFIS) were developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team using a rapid iterative process. Data from 1805 caregivers recruited from 28 programs at 15 institutions across the United States were collected from May-September 2020. We examined the underlying structure of the CEFIS using exploratory factor analyses and its internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha).Results: Participants reported a range of COVID-19-related events (M = 8.71 events of 25). On the bidirectional 4-point impact scale, mean scores were mostly above the midpoint, indicating a slightly negative impact. Cronbach's alpha was excellent for Exposure (α = .80) and Impact (α = .92). Factor analysis identified six factors for Exposure (COVID-19 experiences, Access to essentials, Disruptions to living conditions, Loss of income, Family caregiving and activities, and Designation as an essential worker). There were three factors for Impact (Personal well-being, Family interactions, and Distress).Discussion: The CEFIS has strong factors assessing Exposure to events related to COVID-19, and the Impact of these events on families of children in pediatric healthcare. These initial validation data support use of the CEFIS for measuring the effect of the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between characteristics of home activities and coaching practices with the adherence of parents of children with motor delays to home activities provided by physical therapists and occupational therapists in early intervention. Methods An online survey study was developed and distributed to physical therapists and occupational therapists across the United States. A survey flier was posted online in parent support groups, physical and occupational therapy groups, newsletters, and organizations supporting parents of children with disabilities. Results A total of 720 respondents participated in the survey, and 446 participants from 49 states met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. Parents indicated that physical therapists and occupational therapists applied the 5 coaching practices (joint planning, observation, practice, reflection, and feedback). However, parents (63%) reported more time was needed on coaching. Parents stated that therapists' modeling the activities was the most helpful teaching technique that enhanced their adherence to home activities. Coaching practices, appropriateness of the home activities to daily routines and home environment, provision of home activities enjoyed by the child, and parent self-efficacy were all significantly associated with adherence to home activities. Conclusions Parents' adherence to home activities is affected not only by the type of coaching used by the therapists but also by the characteristics of the home activities provided for young children with delayed motor development. Impact The results of this study provide additional evidence supporting individualization of home activities to promote parents' continuous provision of learning opportunities to promote their children's development. There was also support of the therapists' use of the 5 coaching practices in early intervention to support the parent's application of home activities when the therapists are not present. Lay Summary This study explored the use of home activities from the parents' perspective and provided valuable recommendations to therapists to improve parents' adherence to the recommended home activities in early intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last twenty years, an increasing number of investigations have demonstrated the crucial importance of adequate mothering for early child development and sound ego growth. Maternal deprivation studies, scrutiny of the early ego development of institutionalized children, and the cumulative evidence from clinical case histories all point to the inescapable relationship between inadequate or insufficient maternal care and a variety of ego deficits in the child. Research findings clearly demonstrate that individual differences in disposition and temperament do exist among newborn babies, but there is a lag in incorporating this fact in child-rearing practices and in considering these basic differences in diagnostic and therapeutic formulations. Often when parent-child interaction is discussed, reference is really being made to what a mother does with or to a child. Unwittingly, the interaction is seen as a one-way street rather than as a true reciprocal exchange. The notion that the parent is at the root of his child's problems and is also responsible for the normality of his development has become especially popular in the U.S.

Although the prepurchase effects of advertising on children are well documented, little is known about advertising's impact in conjunction with children's product usage experiences. Two studies, one using experimentation and the other using depth interviews, were undertaken to examine this issue. In addition to informational effects, special emphasis was placed on the role affective constructs play in shaping children's impressions. Experimental results indicated that both product trial and advertising have influences, but also that the interplay of these influences differs between older children (10-11-year-olds) and younger children (seven- to eight-year-olds). Depth interviews offered further insights into these age differences such that our overall understanding of how older and younger children relate to advertisements and product consumption has been advanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Pulmonary hypertension (PH), a complication of sickle cell anaemia (SCA), results in considerable morbidity. This study aims to determine the prevalence and associations of echocardiography-suggested PH in children with SCA. Methods We performed a cross-sectional comparative study involving 100 systematically sampled SCA subjects 3–14 y of age in their steady state with matched haemoglobin AA phenotype controls. Clinical, laboratory and echocardiography data (including tricuspid regurgitation velocity [TRV], mean pulmonary arterial pressure [mPAP] and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion [TAPSE]) were obtained from all patients. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 22 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). A p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results Of the 100 SCA subjects studied, 22 (22%) had echocardiographic findings suggestive of PH compared with none in the controls. The median TAPSE was significantly lower in the PH group (2.55 cm [interquartile range {IQR} 2.2–2.8]) compared with the no PH group (2.77 cm [IQR 2.4–3.2]) (p=0.03). No significant correlation existed between mPAP and age, nor any laboratory parameters studied. The odds ratio (OR) suggested PH significantly increased with an increase in the frequency of hospitalizations for vaso-occlusive crises within a 12-month period (OR 15.15 [95% CI 1.57 to 146.35], p=0.02) and a lifetime history of blood transfusion (OR 5.44 [95% CI 1.09 to 27.24], p=0.04). Conclusions Echocardiography-suggested PH is common in children with SCA and is associated with poorer right ventricular function, frequent vaso-occlusive crises and blood transfusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Quantify the influenza vaccine coverage is essential to identify emerging concerns and to immunization programs for targeting interventions. Methods Data from National Health Interview Survey were used to estimate receipt of at least one dose of influenza vaccination among children 6 months to 17 years of age. Results Influenza vaccination coverage increased from 16.70% during 2004/2005 to 49.43% during 2015/2016 (3.18% per year, P < 0.001); however, the coverage increased slightly after 2010/2011. Children at high risk of influenza complications had higher influenza vaccination coverage than non at-risk children. Boys and girls had similar coverage each year. While the coverage increased from 2004/2005 to 2015/2016 for all age groups, the coverage decreased with age each year (−0.64 to −1.58% per age group). There was a higher and rapid increase of coverage in Northeast than Midwest, South and West. American Indian or Alaskan Native and Asian showed higher coverage than other race groups (White, Black/African American, Multiple race). Multivariable analysis showed that high-risk status and region had the greatest associations with levels of vaccine coverage. Conclusions Although the influenza vaccination coverage among children had increased remarkably since 2004/2005, establishing more effective immunization programs are warranted to achieve the Healthy People 2020 target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, more than 1 in 5 households with children are unable to access and provide adequate food for a healthy, active lifestyle. We argue that the contribution of local context for food insecurity risk has largely been overlooked in favor of focusing on individual family characteristics, and that this is problematic given that mitigating food insecurity may be a communal process. We examine the relevance of neighborhood contributors to food insecurity among children, utilizing geocoded and nationally-representative data from the ECLS-K: 2010-2011 kindergarten cohort. We find little evidence that neighborhood socioeconomic, food retail, or social services characteristics directly impact food insecurity risk. However, our results reveal that family and neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics combine to impact food insecurity in ways consistent with a disadvantage paradox. As neighborhood concentrated disadvantage increases, higher-SES families’ risk of food insecurity increases, but lower-SES families’ risk decreases. This paradox is not explained by a higher concentration of social service organizations in more disadvantaged neighborhoods, and we theorize that impoverished families with children may share information and resources in disadvantaged communities to avoid food insecurity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A primary tenet underlying American Sign Language/English bilingual education for deaf students is that early access to a visual language, developed in conjunction with language planning principles, provides a foundation for literacy in English. The goal of this study is to obtain an emic perspective on bilingual deaf readers transitioning from learning to read to reading to learn. Analysis of 12 interactive, semi-structured interviews identified informal and formal teaching and learning practices in ASL/English bilingual homes and classrooms. These practices value, reinforce, and support the bidirectional acquisition of both languages and provide a strong foundation for literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

School social workers and other school personnel can find meeting the educational and social needs of immigrant children a challenge, particularly if these children are also experiencing poverty and other educational barriers, including limited English language proficiency. Quality after-school programming has been associated with a variety of positive effects such as increased educational attainment and positive social and emotional development and could, therefore, prove significant in the lives of immigrant children. Yet, immigrant children participate less. The purpose of this article is to discuss ways in which school social workers can increase enrollment in after-school programming among immigrant children, six to 12 years of age, by becoming both advocates for children and families and leaders in developing and maintaining these services. School social workers are poised to play a number of roles related to practice, administration, research, and policy. Because this particular age group of children begins to look beyond the family for guidance and support, middle childhood is an opportune time for school social workers to work toward involving children in positive after-school experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The initial Vanguard Study of the National Children's Study was conducted during 2009–2010 in 7 locations in the United States. A goal was to evaluate the feasibility and yield of a household-based sampling design to recruit pregnant women. A multistage area probability sampling design was used to identify study locations (generally, counties) that were subsequently divided into smaller geographical units, termed segments. Between 7 and 18 segments were selected in each location, and dwelling units within segments were listed. A household-based recruitment process was implemented, which included enumeration of households to identify age-eligible women, pregnancy screening to identify pregnant women eligible for immediate enrollment and nonpregnant women for telephone follow-up, and administration of informed consent to eligible women. After a recruitment period of 17–20 months, 67,181 (89%) households were enumerated, which identified 34,172 (88%) age-eligible women to whom the pregnancy screener was administered. Among those who completed the screener, 2,285 women became eligible for enrollment, of whom 1,399 (61%) enrolled. Although response rates were fairly high at initial contact and among pregnant women, the overall yield was lower than anticipated. In particular, telephone follow-up of nonpregnant women was not a practicable strategy for prospective recruitment of newly pregnant women. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

During the two decades following World War II, American voluntary agencies including Christian Children's Fund, Foster Parents' Plan, and the Save the Children Federation ran child sponsorship programs that allowed Americanœ‘foster parents' to send funds and exchange letters with youngsters in war-torn and poverty-stricken countries around the world. These programs were at once humanitarian gestures and political projects. American sponsorship agencies sought to forge international friendships that would support the United States' political alliances and mold children into strong democratic citizens who would join the fight against communism. Enlisting familial ideals in the service of U.S. foreign policy, American child sponsorship agencies rendered love itself a powerful Cold War weapon. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Military-connected (MC) children can face emotional and academic challenges, but little is known about how these affect schools. This study gathered the perceptions of principals, school counselors, and teachers at eight MC public schools. Analyses of interview, focus group, and survey responses revealed that transitions and deployments had an impact on educators' work in specific ways. Areas of impact were thematically summarized in domains of academic support, social-emotional support, administration and student records, cultural responsiveness, and school-military-community partnerships. These domains complement prior research describing areas of MCstudent needs. Findings are situated within a framework of responsiveness that integrates school reform with professional standards for school social workers and school counselors. Recommendations include coordination among schoolbased professionals to promote success across domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-Being was used to examine a sample of 1,735 children ages five to 15 years with child welfare involvement. This study analyzed the extent that maternal criminal justice involvement (MCJI) and other maternal and environmental risks increase the potential for children's internalizing and externalizing problems. MCJI was associated with maternal substance abuse, exposure to violence, and community adversity. Multiple regression models show that MCJI, maternal mental illness, maternal substance abuse, violence exposure, and community adversity were associated with externalizing problems. Maternal mental illness, maternal substance abuse, violence exposure, and community adversity were associated with internalizing problems. MCJI moderated the association between substance abuse and externalizing problems. Findings suggest that the issues affecting children of mothers with child welfare and criminal justice involvement extend beyond issues of MCJI alone and have significant implications for criminal justice and child welfare practice and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

. Using data from the child supplement of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, and fitting three-level random-effects models of child health and cognitive development, we test whether left-handed children have different outcomes from those of their right-handed counterparts. The health measures cover both physical health and mental health, and the cognitive development test scores span vocabulary, mathematics, reading and comprehension. Overall we find little evidence to suggest that left-handed children have a significantly higher probability of experiencing injury, illness or behavioural problems. In contrast, we find that left-handed children have significantly lower cognitive development test scores than right-handed children for all areas of development with the exception of reading. Moreover, we find no strong evidence that the left-handedness effect differs by gender or age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on shared reading has shown positive results on children’s literacy development in general and for deaf children specifically; however, reading techniques might differ between these two populations. Families with deaf children, especially those with deaf parents, often capitalize on their children’s visual attributes rather than primarily auditory cues. These techniques are believed to provide a foundation for their deaf children’s literacy skills. This study examined 10 deaf mother/deaf child dyads with children between 3 and 5 years of age. Dyads were videotaped in their homes on at least two occasions reading books that were provided by the researcher. Descriptive analysis showed specifically how deaf mothers mediate between the two languages, American Sign Language (ASL) and English, while reading. These techniques can be replicated and taught to all parents of deaf children so that they can engage in more effective shared reading activities. Research has shown that shared reading, or the interaction of a parent and child with a book, is an effective way to promote language and literacy, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, and metalinguistic awareness (Snow, 1983), making it critical for educators to promote shared reading activities at home between parent and child. Not all parents read to their children in the same way. For example, parents of deaf children may present the information in the book differently due to the fact that signed languages are visual rather than spoken. In this vein, we can learn more about what specific connections deaf parents make to the English print. Exploring strategies deaf mothers may use to link the English print through the use of ASL will provide educators with additional tools when working with all parents of deaf children. This article will include a review of the literature on the benefits of shared reading activities for all children, the relationship between ASL and English skill development, and the techniques deaf parents use when reading with their deaf children. Following this is the presentation of a study that was conducted on specific techniques deaf parents use in bridging ASL to English as they read with their deaf children. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We examine variation in parents' time with children by work schedule in two-parent families, utilizing time use surveys from the United States (2003), Germany (2001), Norway (2000), and the United Kingdom (2000) (N = 6,835). We find that American fathers working the evening shift spend more time alone with children regardless of mothers’ employment status, whereas this association is conditional on mothers’ employment in the United Kingdom and Germany. We find no evidence that Norwegian fathers working the evening shift spend more time alone with children. We conclude that a consequence of evening work often viewed as positive for children—fathers spending more time with children—is sensitive to both household employment arrangements and country context. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The purpose of this study was to examine the child and family characteristics that predict enrollment in after-school programming for school-age children of immigrant and nonimmigrant families. Although much is known about the beneficial effects of after-school programming for children and youths, the literature focused on immigrant children--the fastest growing segment of the youth population today--is limited. Using 2005 National Household Education Survey data, this study compares the effects of child and family characteristics on enrollment in a nationally representative sample of 7,694 school-age children. Results from this study add to the current body of research on after-school programming and suggest that the importance of mother's immigrant status did not vary according to demographic characteristics such as ethnicity, household income, and education. However, children of immigrant families were found less likely to be enrolled in after-school programming than their native-born counterparts. In light of these results, social work practice and policy must address access and affordability of quality after-school programming for all school-age children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constipation in children is defined on the basis of several clusters of symptoms, and these symptoms are likely to persist into adulthood. The aim of this review article is to summarize the current literature on the use of dietary fiber and whole grains as treatments for childhood constipation. Current recommendations for fiber intake in children vary substantially among organizations, suggesting that the function of fiber in children is not fully understood. Additionally, no formal definition of 'whole grain' exists, which further complicates the interpretation of the literature. Few randomized controlled trials have examined the effect of dietary fiber supplementation in children with constipation. Currently, no randomized controlled trials have investigated the efficacy of whole grains in treating childhood constipation. This is an area that warrants further attention. Increasing the intake of dietary fiber and/or whole grain has the potential to relieve childhood constipation; however, additional randomized controlled trials are necessary to make a formal recommendation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first large-scale, nationwide academic achievement testing program using Stanford Achievement Test (Stanford) for deaf and hard-of-hearing children in the United States started in 1969. Over the past three decades, the Stanford has served as a benchmark in the field of deaf education for assessing student academic achievement. However, the validity and reliability of using the Stanford for this special student population still require extensive scrutiny. Recent shifts in educational policy environment, which require that schools enable all children to achieve proficiency through accountability testing, warrants a close examination of the adequacy and relevance of the current large-scale testing of deaf and hard-of-hearing students. This study has three objectives: (a) it will summarize the historical data over the last three decades to indicate trends in academic achievement for this special population, (b) it will analyze the current federal laws and regulations related to educational testing and special education, thereby identifying gaps between policy and practice in the field, especially identifying the limitations of current testing programs in assessing what deaf and hard-of-hearing students know, and (c) it will offer some insights and suggestions for future testing programs for deaf and hard-of-hearing students. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective To assess whether disgust, the emotion depicted on poison control “Mr. Yuk” stickers, conveys an age-appropriate message to young children. Methods Two preliminary studies (both N = 48) were conducted with adults to assess what facial expressions of emotion they associated with child and adult violations of precautionary rules. Subsequently, 20 3-year-olds and 35 4-year-olds were tested on age-appropriate scenarios to determine what facial expressions of emotion they associate with accidental poisonings. Results Adults associated violations of precautionary rules, regardless of whether they involved children or adults and physical injury or accidental poisonings, with facial expressions of fear, not disgust. The study conducted with children indicated that they likewise anticipated facial expressions of fear in response to accidental poisonings. Conclusions The disgust displayed on Mr. Yuk stickers does not appear to convey a valid emotional message, regardless of whether the stickers are used for preventive or educational purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objectives. This article explores ways in which population aging in the United States between 2010 and 2030 might impact the well-being of children, with a distinction made between advantaged and disadvantaged children. Methods. A variety of economic and demographic statistics are used to describe the changing age structure of the population and changing public spending on older people and children. Data from the 1985 General Social Survey and Wave 2 of the National Survey of Families and Households are also used to examine connections between older people and children. Results. In recent decades, there has been a graying of the federal budget, and programs for children have received a declining proportion of domestic spending. These trends will be exaggerated between 2010 and 2030 unless structural changes occur. Grandparents may provide increasing resources for their grandchildren. Age segregation results in relatively few older people being directly involved with children not related to them by kinship. Conclusions. The implications of population aging for children are relevant primarily for disadvantaged children. Disadvantaged children have grandparents with fewest resources and are most in need of public spending. As costs of supporting the older population increase, intentional social changes will be needed to prevent growing inequality among children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Institute of Medicine reported in 2005 that food and beverage marketing to children and youth is “out of balance with healthful diets”. The dominant policy response in the United States has been to encourage self-regulation by the food, beverage, advertising, and media industries. From a nutrition perspective, this deference to the private sector may seem surprising. This article reviews current economic and legal perspectives on food marketing to children that are motivating the policy decision to attempt a period of self-regulation. The empirical literature on this topic has been reinvigorated by new data on marketing practices and expenditures. The article concludes by considering whether more directive policies are possible in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measures of material hardship, which identify households that do not consume minimal levels of very basic goods and services such as food, housing, and medical care, provide important information about well-being. The research discussed in this article used nationally representative data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation to document the prevalence of material hardship in the U.S. population and in several subgroups in 1995. More than 10 percent of Americans experienced at least one hardship in 1995, and the most common hardships were medical need and food insufficiency. Poor individuals, children, African Americans, Hispanics, and those in single-parent households were particularly vulnerable to hardship. In addition, there is evidence that working households ore more vulnerable to hardship--especially medical need--than measures of income-poverty suggest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes a formative research for developing targeted skin cancer prevention programs for children in Hawaii. Description of participants and their sun protection habits; Summary of findings from discussions and interviews; Implications for program development.

Examines the various factors that contribute to the weight and fitness status of children. Anthropometric factors; Nutrient intake; Level of physical activity; Nutrition knowledge; Implications of results obtained.

The term “horse-racing effect” refers to a positive correlation between the slope at which blood pressure increases with age and blood pressure level at a baseline. Previous studies have reported such an effect in adults, while studies in children have found a negative correlation (termed “the Jenss effect”). These studies used analytic methods in which it was assumed that the blood pressure slopes were constant or the blood pressure profiles were linear. In this study, the authors used a components-of-variance approach that did not require this assumption in order to model serial blood pressure measurements made in 216 US preschool children (mean age at first analyzable blood pressure observation, 58.9 months) at 6–13 visits over a 3-year period (1986–1989). Measurements were made using an automated blood pressure monitor. Values from the second and third measures at each visit were averaged to obtain each observation. Data from 2, 203 blood pressure observations were available for analysis. For the full group, over the mean period of observation of 21.1 months, the mean rate of increase was 3.45 mmHg/year for systolic blood pressure and 0.06 mmHg/year for diastolic blood pressure. In the authors' model, 33 percent of the total marginal variability in systolic blood pressure was attributed to random error (visit-to-visit variability); average (constant) subject-specific difference from the population slope accounted for 42 percent, and a nonlinear component of variability around the subject-specific average accounted for the remaining 25 percent. All three components were statistically significant. Models which assumed that the slopes were constant did not fit these data, and fitting these models to the data led to an artifactual negative correlation between subject-specific slopes and intercepts. An implication of this is that the concepts of “horse-racing” and “the Jenss phenomenon, ” which have been operationalized by testing the covariance of the subject-specific slopes and intercepts using models which assume that the blood pressure slopes are constant over time, should not be applied to data that contain this nonlinear component of variance. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147: 240–9. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes a sub-study that developed a three-dimensional scale, the Caretaker Expectations Regarding the Management of Pediatric Asthma Scale (CE), to assess expectations of caretakers of children with asthma regarding management of the condition. Asthma is a very serious and costly health condition in the United States. Although asthma is a chronic disease, its symptoms tend to be episodic. Asthma varies in the age of initial onset, course of illness, intensity, and responsiveness to medical intervention. A variety of programs have been developed to change asthma management-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of children with asthma and their caretakers. The article authors details the creation of a scale that may serve as a partial solution to the measurement issue and presents an approach to the development of similar scales. The CE examines caretaker expectations using constructs derived from social cognitive theory, the health belief model, and protection motivation theory. The article concludes that the use of the CE as an outcome measure is plausible, although it remains untested. The approach to used to develop the CE provides a useful framework for investigators interested in developing measures of similar psychological constructs.

The article examines welfare reform in the United States and the impact it will have on children. It also presents information relating to signing of the personal responsibility and work opportunity Act of 1996 which ends Aid to Families with Dependent Children. Other than child labor protection and public education funding, federal policymakers have developed few special policies for children. The current devolution debates have vacillated on whether to include foster care and other child welfare programs in block grant provisions. The House of Representatives has usually included child welfare in its block grant provisions, the Senate has always removed this provision. Child welfare and foster care are not block granted in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996. It is important to study the unintended and intended effects of the new policies on children. Of particular concern is whether the time limits and reduced benefits included in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 result in increases in the number of children being shunted to foster care.

This article reports findings from a study on infant mortality in Michigan's child welfare system. Neonatal deaths are considered to reflect endogenous causes, or the influence of intrauterine events, whereas postneonatal deaths are considered to reflect exogenous influences, or causes related to parenting and infant care, and are thus considered more preventable. While U.S. public health officials have become increasingly concerned with postneonatal mortality rates, child welfare professionals have documented an alarming rise in the number of infants placed in foster care. Many of these infants have special health care needs, drug-exposed and medically fragile infants are contributing substantially to increases in infant placements. Although such infants are known to be vulnerable to developmental problems, researchers concur that the postnatal environment is probably more important in determining child outcomes, intensive treatment programs combined with broad-based family support services can ameliorate the negative effects of in utero drug exposure.

The article presents a discussion on the maldistribution of children and income in nonfarm Negro families in the U.S. The article presents several tables containing data. Among Negroes 51 percent of the families as compared with 37 percent of all the families in the South have no children. Although the disparity is not as great, the percentage of Negro families with 1, 2, and 3 or more children is smaller in each instance than in the entire population. As the size of the Negro families increases, the differences between the percentage of Negro families and all families in each category decreases. When the entire child population is considered, the percentage of children in Negro families with 1 or 2 children is smaller than the percentage for the entire child population of the South. The figures on the family unit income of different types of families with and without children are interesting. The median income of the average Negro family in the South is shown to be $505. This is about one-sixth less than that of families with male head and wife. On the other hand, the median income for the average family is considerably higher--21 and 53 percent--than the incomes of the two types of broken families.

Problems of atypical children and their families are being dealt with in the Division of Child Psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin by use of a treatment method based on a marriage of sociological and psychoanalytic principles. With this method, an extended process of diagnostic study and treatment is undertaken, based on concepts of socialization from several disciplines: social philosophy, social psychology, sociology, and psychoanalysis. For the most part, in the U.S. the extended family no longer lives physically under the same root. It has been noted, however, that the emotional ties between nuclear and extended families remain significant, especially in relation to child patients. Today governmental agencies offer security in meeting basic physical needs. Schools are doing a more and more comprehensive job of supplying intellectual needs. Emotional needs arising from deprivation and malfunction are leading families to mental health clinics and social work agencies. In this study, six severely impaired children and their families were treated in a multiple-impact therapeutic program. All were referred as mentally retarded and appeared psychotic on initial evaluation.

The article discusses the policy with regards to population and the importance of reproductive motivation. It depicts that elimination of unwanted births would make only a minor contribution to the needed decrement in fertility and be difficult to accomplish. According to the recent mortality rates in the U.S., achievement of a stationary population implies a completed fertility of approximately two children per woman. It further suggests a definite population policy both to influence desired family size and counteract the potentially disorganizing effect of anti-natalist forces.