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This article discusses ways in which aging individuals respond to physical, social, and environmental changes and constraints by modifying their goals. We review aging-related trends, which we derive from several theoretical approaches, including goal systems theory, the motivational theory of life-span development and its action-phase model, and the Selection, Optimization, and Compensation model. These theories explain how biological and social role changes in later adulthood prompt individuals to make changes to the content, orientation, and composition of their goals, including disengaging from and adjusting previously central goals. They also help identify individual differences in the capacity to do so effectively. We review several motivation-related interventions that address the challenges in goal adjustment and call for more research on identifying processes of goal changes conducive to healthy aging, more interventions, and modifications of societal and institutional (e.g., workplace, nursing home) operations that support adaptive goal change in older adults.

Objectives Although educational attainment is related to cognitive function in later life, little is known about the mechanisms involved. This study assessed the independent mediating effects of two behavioral variables, physical and cognitive activity, on the association between educational attainment and cognitive function and change. Methods Data were derived from the three waves of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study. Predictors (educational attainment) were from the 1995 baseline, mediators (physical and cognitive activities) were from the 2004 wave, and outcomes (cognitive function) were from the 2004 and 2013 waves. Conditional process modeling was applied using PROCESS in SPSS. Results There were both direct and indirect effects of educational attainment on level and change of executive function (EF) and episodic memory (EM). Physical activity and cognitive activity were both significant mediators for cognitive level. For mediators of change, however, cognitive activity was significant for EF and physical activity was significant for EM. Discussion Physical and cognitive activity are discussed as possible factors for protecting against cognitive decline in later life. The findings have implications for advancing supportive policies and practices related to maximizing the benefits of education and physical and cognitive activities for cognition in middle age and later life.

Background Social stress and strain, especially discrimination and inequality might have an impact on memory and cognitive function. This is a major concern for older individuals, their families, communities and societies. We sought to assess changes in episodic memory (EM) and executive functioning (EF) among men and women in the 'Midlife in the United States' (MIDUS) cohort study, to delineate variations in EM and EF by gender, and to determine the impact of social stress/strain at three levels (family, work, society) on longitudinal changes in EM and EF in men and women. Methods We used data from the MIDUS study - a national probability sample of non-institutionalized, English speaking respondents aged 25-74 living in the 48 contiguous states of the United States. The initial wave in our study (1995) included 4963 non-institutionalized adults aged 32 to 84 (M = 55, SD = 12.4). The dependent variables are EM and EF, which were assessed with the Brief Test for Cognition. The independent variables were social stress and discrimination variables at the family/partner level, the work level and the society level, assessed with validated discrimination measures. To assess cognition changes we estimated adjusted linear regression models. Results Women report more perceived inequality for their family and more family strain than men across all age groups. After controlling for other explanatory variables, the main effect on cognition for all age groups was found for perceived inequality of one's family opportunities. Conclusions Reducing social stress and providing opportunities might be an important measure to support episodic memory and executive functioning in aging populations.

Despite the documented and well-publicized health and well-being benefits of regular physical activity (PA), low rates of participation have persisted among American older adults. Peer-based intervention strategies may be an important component of PA interventions, yet there is inconsistent and overlapping terminology and a lack of clear frameworks to provide a general understanding of what peer-based programs are exactly and what they aim to accomplish in the current gerontological, health promotion literature. Therefore, a group of researchers from the Boston Roybal Center for Active Lifestyle Interventions (RALI) collaborated on this paper with the goals to: (a) propose a typology of peer-based intervention strategies for use in the PA promotion literature and a variety of modifiable design characteristics, (b) situate peer-based strategies within a broader conceptual framework, and (c) provide practice guidelines for designing, implementing, and reporting peer-based PA programs with older adults. We advance clarity and a common terminology and highlight key decision points that offer guidance for researchers and practitioners in using peers in their health promotions efforts, and anticipate that it will facilitate appropriate selection, application, and reporting of relevant approaches in future research and implementation work.

Objectives Recent work suggests that physical activity may underlie the positive relationship between control beliefs and cognition. Despite the well-known cognitive benefits, most adults do not engage in enough physical activity, perhaps due to low perceived control. The current study aimed to expand upon past work by investigating these constructs over the short-term by studying the intraindividual variability in daily control beliefs, physical activity, and cognition. We examined whether these constructs were related on a day-to-day basis and if daily physical activity mediated the relationship between control beliefs and cognition. Method Over 7 consecutive days, 145 participants (M = 50.54 years) completed daily diaries to measure domain-specific control beliefs, wore an ActiGraph to capture objective physical activity, and were administered 2 tasks each day via phone to measure cognition. Results Using multilevel structural equation modeling, our results indicated that on days with higher control beliefs cognition was also higher and this relationship was mediated by one’s level of physical activity. Discussion These findings demonstrate the role of physical activity in linking control beliefs and cognition on a daily level using a within-person approach to investigate the dynamic processes in beliefs and cognition.

Cross-sectional findings showed that education differences in memory performance were moderated by frequent cognitive activity (Lachman et al., 2010). The present study examined whether frequent cognitive activity could compensate for lower education when focusing on change in cognitive performance across nine years. The study also explored whether cognitive activity can slow down declines in retired adults as previous research suggested that retiring is associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline (e.g., Wickrama et al., 2013). Longitudinal data from the MIDUS study included N = 3,325 middle-aged and older adults. Outcome variables were two factors of cognitive performance: Episodic Memory (EM) and Executive Functioning (EF). Independent variables were years of education, work status (working vs. retired), and frequency of cognitive activity. The results suggest that cognitive activity moderated the effect of educational attainment on change in EM. Individuals with both higher education and cognitive activity showed the smallest declines in EM. Individuals with lower educational attainment but high cognitive activity had less decline in EM compared to their low education counterparts. Those who increased their cognitive activity over time showed less decline in EF. In terms of work status, working adults had less decline in EM and EF compared to retired adults and retired adults who did not maintain their cognitive activity declined more in EF. The results emphasize the importance of frequent engagement in cognitive activity across the lifespan, which can attenuate cognitive declines especially among those who have lower education or have retired.

Although there is evidence that physical activity (PA) and sleep are related, it is unclear which aspects of these multidimensional constructs are involved. Many have examined differences in PA and sleep between persons, but few have tested daily associations within persons. The present study examined sleep (duration; hours spent asleep, WASO; wake after sleep onset, latency; time to fall asleep) and PA (total and intensity) over 7 days, using both a self-reported diary (subjective) and an ActiWatch (objective). Healthy adults between 34 and 83 came to University of Wisconsin, Madison to participate in the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Biomarker study (N=436, Mage: 56.92, SDage: 11.5). Subjective and objective measures showed differential relationships; subjective duration was higher, and latency was lower than objective measures. Some age differences were also found; older adults reported more WASO than middle-aged adults, but their WASO was similar according to actigraphy. Multilevel models revealed that total PA and intensity significantly predicted subjective and objective sleep measures, controlling for age, sex, and other demographic variables. More active participants had shorter sleep durations, WASO, and latency. Within-person analyses revealed that on days one is more active than average, sleep duration is shorter with less WASO across age. Although the negative relationship between PA and sleep duration was unexpected, it is possible that because more active individuals wake less during the night, they may need fewer hours of sleep because their sleep is more restful. Discussion will focus on possible mechanisms involved in linking PA and sleep.

Social media platforms allow people to connect and share content online (e.g., Facebook, Twitter). Although older adults are becoming more frequent users of social media, there continue to be mixed views on whether social media positively or negatively impacts well-being. Past studies have mainly focused on cross-sectional analyses for individual differences. However, both the time spent on social media and one’s affect can fluctuate on a daily basis. Thus, it is important to understand how the relationship between daily social media usage and affect varies within individuals from day to day. The current study adds to the literature by examining whether daily variations in time spent with social media are related to daily positive and negative affect and whether there are age differences in these relationships. The current study used an eight-day daily diary from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Refresher dataset for 782 participants (ages 25-75). Multilevel modeling results revealed that age moderated the relationship between daily time spent on social media and negative affect: for younger adults, on days when they spent more time on social media, they had more negative affect. For older adults, on days when they spent more time on social media, they had less negative affect. Surprisingly, daily time spent on social media was not related to daily positive affect, nor did this relationship differ by age. Implications for future research are discussed with a focus on how social media usage can contribute to daily well-being for adults of different ages.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies showed that subjective age – individuals’ perceptions of their own age as older or younger in relation to their actual age, is an important predictor of physical, cognitive, and mental health. Despite some initial findings suggesting that subjective aging responses to variations in the daily experiences, less is known about how daily and momentary experiences shape how old people feel, and how their perceived age affects their daily experiences. In this symposium, five studies using daily diaries and experience sampling methods will be presented and discussed to explore how subjective aging affects, and is affected by, daily changes. In the first presentation, Neupert will discuss her findings regarding the covariation of anticipatory next-day health-related stressors and coping with felt-age, suggesting that forecasting and coping with future stressors play a role in subjective aging. Presenting findings from his experience-moment-sampling study, Hughes will discuss the momentary association between subjective age and mind wandering. Zhang and Segel-Karpas will present findings from studies focusing on attitudes towards aging. Zhang will focus on state vs. trait subjective aging, exploring their association with daily variability in control and competence, while Segel-Karpas will focus on the moderating role of attitudes in the daily associations between subjective age and mental health. Finally, Shrira will present a study of rehabilitation patients, finding that subjective aging is related to physical and mental health, especially for patients with high age-awareness. Professor Lachman will lead a discussion.

Given the increased usage of technology for social interactions, it is important to consider whether the method of communication makes a difference in one’s daily well-being. We conducted a diary study, over seven days with 142 participants, to examine the role that communication method (in-person, phone, technology) plays in daily stress exposure, stress reactivity, and positive and negative affect among adults ages 22 to 94. Multilevel modeling results revealed that on days with higher use of technology (text, video, internet) communication than their weekly average, individuals had more negative outcomes (greater stress exposure and negative affect). On days with more in-person communication than their weekly average, individuals had more positive affect. On days with more phone communication than their weekly average, individuals had less negative affect. The discussion highlights the benefits of in-person and phone communications for well-being, while also considering the potential negative outcomes associated with frequent technology communication.

Objective This study examines the cognitive functioning of parents of children with disabilities, specifically, whether there is an evidence of accelerated cognitive aging among these parents. In addition, the study investigates the moderating influences of two variables: parents' gender and stress from negative parenting experience. Method The analyses utilize data from the National Survey of Midlife in the United States (2005). The analytic sample consisted of two groups of parents, who completed the cognitive battery, the interview, and the mail-back survey: 128 parents who had children with childhood-onset disabilities and 512 matched comparison parents who had only nondisabled children. Results Age differences in episodic memory were more pronounced among mothers of children with disabilities than among mothers with nondisabled children, especially among mothers with higher levels of negative parenting experience. In contrast, there were no interaction effects of parenting status, age, and negative parenting experience among fathers. Discussion The results show that parenting children with disabilities over a prolonged period of time jeopardizes cognitive function (especially memory) among older mothers, possibly via the mechanism of heightened parenting stress due to higher levels of negative parenting experience.

Physical activity is one of the most promising and accessible strategies to promote healthy aging. Yet, the majority of middle-aged and older adults do not engage in the recommended amount of exercise despite awareness of its widespread benefits. Smartphone apps have the potential to be valuable tools in tracking and encouraging physical activity; however, few apps incorporate successful behavior change strategies. Drawing from interviews with older adults, we created a new smartphone app to encourage and track daily walking, StepMATE (Mobile App for Tracking Exercise). StepMATE uses behavior change strategies including action planning and social support to help users determine where, when, and with whom they will walk. The app records steps and also uses experience sampling to assess mood and energy levels twice a day. Adults ages 50 and over (N=58) participated in a one-month study where they used the app to set their own walking goals and track their daily walking. Using multilevel modeling, we found that on days in which adults take more steps than their average, they report higher mood and energy. We also found that on days in which participants achieve their step goal, they report higher mood and energy than on days when they do not achieve their goal. Discussion will center on motivational approaches to behavior change among sedentary older adults.

Social relationships are beneficial for psychological wellbeing, but they are also associated with interpersonal stress. With the growing usage of multiple forms of electronic communications (EC) including phone calls, text messages, video chat, and internet among adults of all ages, it was of interest to explore the relationship between social network size (SNS), in-person communication (PC), and EC, and whether the relationship between SNS and frequency of communication is associated with interpersonal stress. A daily diary study was conducted over seven days for 142 participants ages 22 to 94. SNS was assessed with the social convoy model. Frequency of PC and EC, along with interpersonal stress, were assessed daily. As expected, multiple regression analysis results showed that older adults had smaller SNS and less frequent technology communication (text messages, video chat, internet) compared to younger adults. With regard to effects on interpersonal stress, there were no main effects for frequency of PC, EC, or SNS. However, the frequency of EC moderated the relationship between SNS and interpersonal stress, controlling for amount of PC. Among those with a smaller SNS, having more frequent EC was associated with less interpersonal stress compared to those with less frequent EC. For those with a larger SNS, having more frequent EC was associated with more interpersonal stress compared to those with less EC, but PC was not related to interpersonal stress. The discussion will consider implications of the findings for developing interventions to minimize stress from interpersonal communications, especially those that involve EC.

The lack of disease-modifying treatments for dementia underscores the importance of prevention for alleviating this growing public health crisis. Psychosocial factors have been shown to influence cognitive aging trajectories. However, most studies have focused on risk rather than resilience. This symposium brings together four papers that use data from major longitudinal studies of cognitive aging to explore psychosocial resources that could be leveraged to optimize cognitive aging. Each presentation focuses on a different aspect of psychosocial functioning in large, racially and ethnically diverse cohorts of older adults. The symposium takes a life course perspective, as presentations consider how psychosocial resources at different stages of development predict cognitive aging. First, Dr. Laura Zahodne demonstrates how higher quality social support during childhood leads to healthier later-life cognitive trajectories by shaping socioeconomic achievements as well as physical and mental health during adulthood. Dr. Neika Sharifian examines how objective characteristics of social networks (i.e., size, proportion family) interact to predict older adults’ functioning across different domains of cognition. Dr. Robert Turner examines whether personal control can buffer the negative cognitive impact of psychosocial stressors that have accumulated across the life course among men transitioning from mid-life to older adulthood. Jasmine Manalel demonstrates how cognitive aging trajectories differ between individuals who interact only with close social partners versus individuals who cultivate broader social ties through participation in social clubs and prosocial, community-based activities. Finally, Dr. Margie Lachman (discussant) will offer perspectives on mechanisms underlying connections between psychosocial histories and cognitive functioning for older adults.

Modern increase in life expectancy and deviation from the normative life course have complicated the existing outlook of aging in midlife. Furthermore, the issue of aging population is not unique to one geographic region; it is a phenomenon shared by individuals diverse in a range of the political, social, and cultural spectrum. This symposium reports on biological and psychological challenges that middle-aged adults nowadays face in preparing for aging and the unique contribution of sociocultural factors. Using the Health and Retirement Study, Shannon Mejia, Rich Gonzalez, and Jacqui Smith discuss the contribution of individual and shared experiences to the couples’ shared risk in multisystem markers of biological strain. Frank Infurna, Suniya Luthar, and Kevin Grimm examine a differential impact of the lifetime and recent incidence of adversity on character strength and well-being of middle-aged adults who were assessed monthly for two-years. Joanna Hong and Susan Charles present findings on a comparison of age-related differences in perceptions of past, present, and future life satisfaction using the Midlife Development in the U.S. and the Survey of Midlife Development in Japan. Yijung Kim, Kyungmin Kim, Kathrin Boerner, and Gyounghae Han explore the subjective sense of future time and its link to exercise, physical symptoms, and chronic conditions among Korean baby boomers. The discussant will be Margie Lachman. Taken together, these presentations will provide an in-depth discussion on an interplay of individual and sociocultural factors in shaping the changing trajectory of aging across the globe.

The present research examined whether remaining employed protected against nine-year declines in cognitive functioning (episodic memory). We used the national Midlife in the United States Study to (a) propensity score match middle-aged and older adults who remained employed with those who retired, (b) test whether the matched samples differed on longitudinal cognitive functioning, and (c) examine whether effects of work status were moderated by goal disengagement and sex. Comparisons of the matched samples indicated workers had slightly less decline in cognitive functioning than retirees, but this difference was not significant. Tests of moderation showed those who remained employed (vs. retired) exhibited more adaptive changes in cognitive functioning only if they were high in goal disengagement (b =.26, p =.019) or if they were female (b =.24, p =.022). Findings suggest that continued employment may protect against cognitive declines for women and those who are prone to goal disengagement after retirement.

Cognitive and physical activity are related to maintaining good cognitive functioning in later life, but they are not usually considered together in the same model. Previous research suggests that those with higher education have better cognitive functioning in later life. We examined both physical and cognitive activity as possible mediators of this relationship, and whether age is a moderator. Data were from the three waves of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study, a national survey that included 7,108 participants aged from 24 to 75 years at baseline. Educational attainment was from the 1995 baseline, mediators (physical and cognitive activities) were from the 2004 wave, and outcomes (cognitive function) were from the 2004 and 2013 waves. A conditional process model was applied using PROCESS in SPSS. Results indicated that education has a direct effect on both executive function (EF) and episodic memory (EM) and an indirect effect through both physical and cognitive activity. The effects of physical activity on the association between education and cognitive function and cognitive change (EF and EM) were stronger among older adults than younger adults. The mediation effect of cognitive activity on the association between education and cognitive function and cognitive change was not moderated by age. We will discuss the role of both cognitive and physical activity for promoting cognitive function at mid and later life. The results have implications for advancing supportive policies and practices related to maximizing the benefits of physical and cognitive activities on cognition in mid and later life.

Both conscientiousness and perceived control are positively related to health-promoting behaviors such as physical activity. The goal of the current study was to examine if perceived control mediated the relationship between conscientiousness and daily physical activity. For seven days, 145 adults, ages 22 to 94, recorded physical activity and sedentary time with an Actigraph GT3X+, and rated their perceived control over physical activity. Controlling for age, sex, and education, multilevel models revealed that on days with higher perceived control there were greater Kcals, METs, and time-spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity, and less sedentary time. Conscientiousness was related to greater daily perceived control over activity and negatively related to sedentary time; daily control beliefs mediated this relationship. The findings extend our understanding of the mechanisms linking conscientiousness, perceived control, and physical activity, and suggest that control beliefs and personality should both be considered when developing physical activity interventions.

There is interest in understanding what factors contribute to changes in subjective age. With longitudinal data collected in the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study, we examined changes in subjective age over 18 years. We assessed whether two domains that typically show aging-related declines, functional health and memory, would predict differential changes in subjective age, controlling for age, sex, and education. Whereas an average of 18 years had passed between the first and third waves, participants on average felt only 14.76 years older, although some felt they had aged more. Worse functioning with regard to health and memory predicted greater increases in subjective age. Additionally, those who reported that their health and memory, relative to their peers, had decreased also demonstrated greater increases in subjective age. This suggests that although most people feel that they are aging slower than they actually are, aging-related declines contribute to faster subjective aging.

This study identified factors associated with exercise participation and adherence in a sample of 102 sedentary, functionally limited, community-dwelling adults aged 60 to 94 years who participated in a home-based resistance training program. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that baseline physical factors (i.e., higher levels of mobility, weaker muscle strength, and fewer numbers of new medical conditions) were associated with higher rates of participation in the home program. Positive attitudes and a sense of control toward exercise, lower levels of confusion and depressive moods, and the development of fewer new medical problems during the program were related to higher levels of adherence to the program. Findings revealed that although physical health variables were the primary indicators of an older person's overall participation in the program, it was the psychological factors that were most important to adherence to this home-based program.

A new instrument was developed to assess the role of fear of falling in activity restriction. The instrument assesses fear of falling during performance of 11 activities, and gathers information about participation in these activities as well as the extent to which fear is a source of activity restriction. The instrument demonstrated good internal consistency reliability and showed convergent validity with other fear of falling measures. Concurrent (empirical) validity was demonstrated in that the scale was effective in differentiating among those who were expected to be afraid vs. not afraid of falling. Criterion validity was examined in relation to quality of life variables. Fear of falling was shown to be related to lower quality of life, even when controlling for related background factors. One advantage of this measure over existing measures is the possibility for differentiating fear of falling that leads to activity restriction from fear of falling that accompanies activity. This may provide useful information for those interested in treating fear of falling of promoting activity among the elderly. Language: en

This study examined the effects of list-making, and specific aspects of list-making such as intent (whether one expects to refer back to one's list at the time of recall) and organization, on memory performance in young and old adults. Young and old adults were randomly assigned to a list-making or a non-list-making condition. In both conditions, subjects performed two memory tasks in which they were presented with a word list followed by written recall and recognition tests. On one task, subjects were informed that they would not be allowed to refer to the list at the time of testing (internal-intent). On the other task, subjects were informed that they would be allowed to refer back to the list (external-intent), but actually were not allowed to. Planned comparisons found that list-making significantly improved older adults' performance on the recall tasks. Additionally, while the old performed significantly worse than the young in the non-list-making internal-intent recall task (the traditional memory test condition), these significant differences were not found on either of the list-making recall tasks. Both young and old list-makers who spontaneously organized their lists while studying the words recalled more items than subjects who did not organize their lists. These findings suggest future directions for both theoretical and applied research in the area of memory and aging.

OBJECTIVE: As individuals age, they monitor how well they are aging by comparing themselves with their peers. We examined whether such social comparisons contribute to change in one’s subjective age over time and whether they mediate the relationship of health and cognitive functioning with subjective age. METHOD: A total of 3,427 participants from the Midlife in the United States study were assessed on subjective age on two occasions 10 years apart. Measures of cognition and health were taken at the second wave along with social comparison measures for health and memory. RESULTS: The results showed that social comparisons of memory and health mediated the relationship between memory performance and level of subjective age as well as the relationship between functional health and subjective age change. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that those who have better functioning in aging-relevant domains have a more favorable view of themselves compared with others, which in turn predicted a younger subjective age and smaller increases in subjective age over 10 years. When social comparisons were considered, those who had better health and memory and more favorable comparative assessments did not feel that they had aged as much as those who had lower functioning and assessments.

Memory problems are a major source of concern among older adults. The goal of this research was to evaluate methods for improving memory performance and beliefs about memory ability and control. Men and women between the ages of 60 and 85 were randomly assigned to one of five treatment groups: (1) cognitive restructuring to promote adaptive beliefs about memory, (2) memory skills training, (3) combined cognitive restructuring and memory skills training, (4) practice on memory tasks, and (5) a no-contact control group. Beliefs about memory (ability and control) and memory performance (working memory, recall of text materials, categorizable word list, and names and faces) were assessed at a pretest and two posttests. As predicted, those receiving the combined treatment showed the greatest increases in their sense of control and perceived ability to improve memory. Results indicated that all groups improved equally on the memory tasks, although those who had received memory training were more likely to report at the second posttest that they had begun using new strategies for remembering things.

Elderly adults (N = 116; average age = 73 years) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups varying in the amount of training and testing on fluid intelligence tests. They were compared before and after treatment on self-efficacy and utility beliefs for intelligence tests and everyday competence. Although both ability training and extended retest practice resulted in significant gains in objective test performance (Baltes, Kliegl, & Dittmann-Kohli, 1988), only ability training resulted in positive changes in self-efficacy. However, these changes were restricted to test-related self-efficacy. Training had no impact on perceived utility or on everyday self-efficacy beliefs. Implications of the results are discussed with regard to interventions to increase intellectual self-efficacy in elderly persons.

This study examined subjective assessments of intellectual performance in young (M age = 19.46) and elderly (M age = 75.13) adults. Male and female college students (n = 37) and senior citizens (n = 48) were asked to predict their performance before and after taking fluid and crystallized intelligence tests on two trials. Participants also made causal attributions for their test performance. Elderly participants scored significantly higher on the crystallized test, and young participants scored higher on the fluid test. Men's and women's actual performance did not differ, but the elderly women made lower performance predictions on the fluid test than the elderly men. Both the young and the elderly groups were more accurate in predicting their test performance for the test on which their performance was higher. Accuracy of performance predictions improved across the two trials. Both age groups were more likely to attribute successful performance to ability and unsuccessful performance to task difficulty.