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The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), was introduced from eastern North America into western North America via infested apples (Malus domestica Borkhausen) about 44 yr ago, where it subsequently adapted to 2 hawthorn species, Crataegus douglasii Lindley and C. monogyna Jacquin. Here, we test whether R. pomonella has also adapted to large-thorn hawthorn, Crataegus macracantha Loddiges ex Loudon, in Okanogan County, Washington State, USA. In 2020, 2021, and 2022, fruit of C. macracantha were shown to ripen in late September and were infested at rates from 0.7% to 3.0%. In laboratory rearing studies, large-thorn hawthorn flies from C. macracantha eclosed on average 9–19 days later than apple flies from earlier ripening apple (August–early September), consistent with large-thorn hawthorn flies having adapted to the later fruiting phenology of its host. In a laboratory no-choice test, significantly fewer (64.8%) large-thorn hawthorn than apple flies visited apples. In choice tests, greater percentages of large-thorn hawthorn than apple flies resided on and oviposited into C. macracantha versus apple fruit. Large-thorn hawthorn flies were also smaller in size than apple flies. Our results provide further support for the recursive adaptation hypothesis that R. pomonella has rapidly and independently specialized phenologically and behaviorally to different novel hawthorn hosts since its introduction into the Pacific Northwest of the USA, potentially leading to host race formation.

Seasonal temperatures select for eclosion timing of temperate insects and their parasitoids. In western North America, the fruit fly Rhagoletis zephyria Snow (Diptera: Tephritidae) is parasitized by the hymenopterous wasps Utetes lectoides (Gahan), an egg parasite, and Opius downesi Gahan, a larval parasite (both Braconidae). Eclosion of wasps should be timed with the presence of susceptible fly stages, but reports indicate U. lectoides ecloses in the absence of flies under no-chill conditions. Based on this, we tested the hypotheses that chill durations and no-chill temperatures both differentially regulate eclosion times of R. zephyria and its parasitic wasps. When fly puparia were chilled at ~3°C for 130–180 d, U. lectoides and O. downesi always eclosed on average later than flies. However, after 180-d chill, flies eclosed on average earlier than after 130- and 150-d chill, whereas eclosion times of U. lectoides and O. downesi were less or not affected by chill duration. When fly puparia were exposed to 20–22°C (no chill), U. lectoides eclosed before flies, with 88.9% of U. lectoides versus only 0.61% of flies eclosing. Taken together, findings show that eclosion times of flies are more sensitive to changes in chill duration than those of wasps. Flies are less sensitive than wasps to no-chill in that most flies do not respond by eclosing after no-chill while most wasps do. Our results suggest that shorter winters and longer summers due to climate change could cause mismatches in eclosion times of flies and wasps, with potentially significant evolutionary consequences.

Organic yard waste from western Washington, U.S. that may contain puparia of apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), had been moved to central Washington for composting, threatening the $3 billion apple industry concentrated in that region. Heating waste to kill fly puparia before it is transported could be a solution to this problem. Here, we report results of studies in 2016–2021 that sought to identify a minimum heat treatment simulating that obtained using a low-pressure steam generator for maximizing kill of R. pomonella puparia. In two experiments, puparia were exposed to temperatures ramped linearly over 6 h from 21°C to 47.8, 51.1, 55.0, or 60.0°C in an oven. The 47.8, 51.1, and 55°C treatments did not achieve 100% mortality, although only one adult fly from 4,000 puparia was found in the 55°C treatment, while no puparia survived the 60°C treatment. In a third, similar experiment, no puparia out of 2,400 exposed to 55°C survived. In a fourth and final experiment conducted over 3 years, no puparia out of 61,223 exposed to a 6-h ramp from 21°C to 55°C followed by a 1-h hold time at 55°C produced flies. In addition, all puparia in this treatment died. Based on 42.3 to 69.8% control survival, 31,217 puparia were killed by this treatment with no survivors, for a probit 8.7190 level of security. Results suggest that the 55°C and 1-h hold time treatment here is close to the minimum heat regime needed for disinfesting organic waste of R. pomonella puparia.

Tolerance of terrestrial insects in temperate regions to water immersion and hypoxia has rarely been studied but can be an important adaptation to moist environments, with implications for insect dispersal through waterways. In the Pacific Northwest of the United States, apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), can be found in riparian habitats subject to flooding. Here, survival of R. pomonella larvae and different age puparia after flotation or immersion in 13.3°C or 21.1°C water for 1–12 d was determined. Larvae sank in water and when submerged for 1 or 2 d suffered greater mortality than control larvae. Fewer young (1–2 d old) than older puparia (13–15 d old) floated in water. When immersed in water for 1–12 d, young puparia suffered greater mortality than older puparia, which were not affected by water immersion. Consequently, fewer adult flies eclosed from puparia that had been water treated when young than older. Adult flies from pre-chill and post-chill puparia that had been water treated eclosed later than control flies, but treatment flies survived about 60 d and reproduced. Although newly-formed puparia are susceptible to hypoxic water conditions, increased buoyancy and water tolerance occur rapidly after formation, perhaps making survival possible and allowing water-borne dispersal of older puparia.

BackgroundThe safety profile of antimicrobials used during pregnancy is one important consideration in the decision on how to treat and provide postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) for plague during pregnancy.MethodsWe searched 5 scientific literature databases for primary sources on the safety of 9 antimicrobials considered for plague during pregnancy (amikacin, gentamicin, plazomicin, streptomycin, tobramycin, chloramphenicol, doxycycline, sulfadiazine, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole [TMP-SMX]) and abstracted data on maternal, pregnancy, and fetal/neonatal outcomes.ResultsOf 13 052 articles identified, 66 studies (case-control, case series, cohort, and randomized studies) and 96 case reports were included, totaling 27 751 prenatal exposures to amikacin (n = 9), gentamicin (n = 345), plazomicin (n = 0), streptomycin (n = 285), tobramycin (n = 43), chloramphenicol (n = 246), doxycycline (n = 2351), sulfadiazine (n = 870), and TMP-SMX (n = 23 602). Hearing or vestibular deficits were reported in 18/121 (15%) children and 17/109 (16%) pregnant women following prenatal streptomycin exposure. First trimester chloramphenicol exposure was associated with an elevated risk of an undescended testis (odds ratio [OR] 5.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2–28.7). Doxycycline was associated with cardiovascular malformations (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.2–4.7) in 1 study and spontaneous abortion (OR 2.8, 95% CI 1.9–4.1) in a separate study. First trimester exposure to TMP-SMX was associated with increased risk of neural tube defects (pooled OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.4–4.3), spontaneous abortion (OR 3.5, 95% CI 2.3–5.6), preterm birth (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.1–2.1), and small for gestational age (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2–2.2). No other statistically significant associations were reported.ConclusionsFor most antimicrobials reviewed, adverse maternal/fetal/neonatal outcomes were not observed consistently. Prenatal exposure to streptomycin and TMP-SMX was associated with select birth defects in some studies. Based on limited data, chloramphenicol and doxycycline may be associated with adverse pregnancy or neonatal outcomes; however, more data are needed to confirm these associations. Antimicrobials should be used for treatment and PEP of plague during pregnancy; the choice of antimicrobials may be influenced by these data as well as information about the risks of plague during pregnancy.

Western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, is a quarantine pest of sweet cherries in the Pacific Northwest of the United States that overwinters as diapausing pupae. Eclosion responses of R. indifferens puparia to different low temperature durations and postdiapause conditions affect the pest status of the fly. Here, we determined the effects of holding R. indifferens puparia at 3°C for 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 wk on adult eclosion times and rates at two simulated temperate and two simulated tropical climate treatments over 40 wk. When puparia were chilled 0, 1, or 2 wk, adult eclosion across the four climate treatments displayed a bimodal distribution with low eclosion at 3 wk and high eclosion at 23–35 wk. When puparia were chilled ≤ 10 wk, there was a weaker bimodal distribution. However, when puparia were chilled 15–30 wk, eclosion was more synchronous and occurred at 5–7 wk across the four postchill climate treatments. Eclosion was greater at a postdiapause temperature of 26°C than 23°C. Timing to 50% eclosion was faster at longer photoperiod (16:8 L:D) than shorter (12:12 L:D). The bimodality of eclosion in respect to the duration of low temperature exposure may be indicative of univoltine insect species with obligate diapause that may span over two seasons.

Insecticides mixed in sugar-protein baits or insecticides alone have been used to control tephritid fruit flies for many years. Here, effects of cyantraniliprole, spinetoram, and the biopesticide Chromobacterium subtsugae extract in sucrose-yeast extract bait or alone on kill and oviposition of western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), were evaluated in the laboratory. Flies were exposed to dry insecticide bait or insecticide alone in the presence or absence of a nontoxic food strip. Spinetoram alone caused greater mortality than cyantraniliprole alone, while cyantraniliprole in bait caused mortality as high as spinetoram bait and greater mortality than cyantraniliprole alone. Chromobacterium subtsugae extract alone but not in bait caused significant mortality compared with controls, but was much less effective than cyantraniliprole and spinetoram. Spinetoram alone reduced oviposition more than cyantraniliprole alone. However, cyantraniliprole bait reduced oviposition as much or more than spinetoram alone or spinetoram bait. Cyantraniliprole and spinetoram baits caused greater mortality when a nontoxic food strip was absent than present, but there was no corresponding reduction in oviposition. Chromobacterium subtsugae extract did not significantly reduce oviposition compared with controls. Potential benefits of using cyantraniliprole baits as an additional or alternative method to using more toxic spinosyn insecticides for controlling R. indifferens warrant study.

Background/Purpose Long-QT (LQT) Syndrome is an inherited heart rhythm condition presenting with QT-prolongation and failure to shorten with exercise, leading to life-threatening cardiac events. The prevalent normal-to-borderline phenotype remains a challenge for diagnosis. A three-step algorithm was developed to predict genotype from phenotypic characteristics with exercise testing. Sex-specific cut offs for determining a prolonged corrected QT value are 470ms for males and 480ms for females, serving as step 1 in the algorithm. The purpose of this study is to validate the algorithm using a national cohort that is more representative of the general LQT population, with a milder phenotype and more frequent ambiguity in phenotype. Methods A review of cases in the Canadian National Long-QT Registry, housed in the HiRO Registry was undertaken. Eligible cases from September 2014 to May 2020 were included. Gene-positive patients included 93 probands and 122 first-degree relatives (FDR) with a likely-pathogenic or pathogenic mutation according to ACMG criteria, limited to LQT1/2 subtypes, with 164 and 51 patients, respectively. Controls were composed of 39 gene-negative FDRs. Continuous variables were compared by the Mann-Whitney U test for 2-group comparisons, and Kruskal-Wallis test for multiple group comparisons. The predictive value of exercise ECG characteristics were analysed using ROC analysis and optimal cut-off values for exercise ECG characteristics (supine, standing, peak exercise, 1 and 4-minutes into recovery) were determined for males and females, using a sensitivity of 0.80 for carrier status and 0.75 for subtype. Results The 4-minute recovery QTc had the best predictive value for males, with an AUC of 0.86, and a cut-off point of 442ms given a sensitivity of 0.81 and specificity of 0.86. The 4-minute recovery QTc yielded an AUC of 0.79 for females, with a cut-off of 452ms given a sensitivity of 0.81 and specificity of 0.71. The 1-minute recovery QTc had the best predictive value for females, with an AUC of 0.92 and a cut-off point of 424ms given a sensitivity of 0.82 and specificity of 0.94. In prediction of LQT1, the 1-minute recovery QTc yielded the highest AUC for both males and females, at 0.68 and 0.80, respectively. Males had a cut off of 428ms with a sensitivity of 0.75 and specificity of 0.47, while females had a cut off of 451ms given a sensitivity of 0.76 and specificity of 0.75. Conclusion The current study demonstrates that exercise testing is a valid approach to diagnosing LQTS, with a differential optimal best measurement in males vs. females. Test performance measured by AUC was generally better at all time points in females compared to males. The algorithm is a reliable and simple method for the identification and prediction of genotype for probands and FDR carriers. The algorithm should be sex-stratified at the second step, with the 4-minute recovery QTc used for males and the 1-minute recovery QTc for females. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Public grant(s) – National budget only. Main funding source(s): Canadian Institute of Health Research

Insect pests destroy ~15% of all U.S. crops, resulting in losses of $15 billion annually. Thus, developing cheap, quick, and reliable methods for detecting harmful species is critical to curtail insect damage and lessen economic impact. The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella, is a major invasive pest threatening the multibillion-dollar apple industry in the Pacific Northwest United States. The fly is also sympatric with a benign but morphologically similar and genetically closely related species, R. zephyria, which attacks noncommercial snowberry. Unambiguous species identification is essential due to a zero-infestation policy of apple maggot for fruit export. Mistaking R. zephyria for R. pomonella triggers unnecessary and costly quarantines, diverting valuable control resources. Here we develop and apply a relatively simple and cost-effective diagnostic approach using Illumina sequencing of double-digest restriction site-associated DNA markers. We identified five informative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and designed a diagnostic test based on agarose gel electrophoresis of restriction enzyme-digested polymerase chain reaction amplification products (RFLPs) to distinguish fly species. We demonstrated the utility of this approach for immediate, 1-d species identification by scoring apple- and snowberry-infesting flies from known hosts, reared from fruit collected at 11 sites throughout Washington. However, if immediate diagnosis is not required, or hundreds to thousands of specimens must be assessed, then a direct Illumina-based sequencing strategy, similar to that used here for diagnostic SNP identification, can be powerful and cost-effective. The genomic strategy we present is effective for R. pomonella and also transferable to many cryptic pests.

The most effective traps tested against western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, have been the Yellow Sticky Strip (YSS) rectangle made of styrene and the three-dimensional yellow Rebell cross made of polypropylene. However, three-dimensional YSS styrene traps have never been tested against this or any other fruit fly. The main objectives of this study were to determine the efficacies of 1) YSS cross, Rebell cross, YSS cylinder, and YSS rectangle traps, 2) Rebell cross versus Rebell rectangle traps, and 3) YSS tent versus YSS rectangle traps for R. indifferens. For 1), the YSS cross caught more flies than the Rebell cross of equivalent surface area and more than a smaller YSS cylinder, but not any more than a YSS rectangle of similar surface area as the YSS cross. For 2), a Rebell cross caught more flies than a rectangle of equivalent surface area made of Rebell panels. For 3), YSS tent and YSS rectangle traps of equivalent surface area did not differ in fly captures. Results suggest that the YSS cross was more effective than the Rebell cross due to its color and that when trap color is highly attractive, three-dimensional shape may be unimportant, whereas it could be when trap color is less attractive. A new trap modeled after the YSS cross, compact but with high trap surface area to increase fly captures, could be an effective option or addition to rectangles for monitoring R. indifferens.

Long-lived perennial plants, with distinctive habits of inter-annual growth, defense, and physiology, are of great economic and ecological importance. However, some biological mechanisms resulting from genome duplication and functional divergence of genes in these systems remain poorly studied. Here, we discovered an association between a poplar (Populus trichocarpa) 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase gene (PtrEPSP) and lignin biosynthesis. Functional characterization of PtrEPSP revealed that this isoform possesses a helix-turn-helix motif in the N terminus and can function as a transcriptional repressor that regulates expression of genes in the phenylpropanoid pathway in addition to performing its canonical biosynthesis function in the shikimate pathway. We demonstrated that this isoform can localize in the nucleus and specifically binds to the promoter and represses the expression of a SLEEPER-like transcriptional regulator, which itself specifically binds to the promoter and represses the expression of PtrMYB021 (known as MYB46 in Arabidopsis thaliana), a master regulator of the phenylpropanoid pathway and lignin biosynthesis. Analyses of overexpression and RNAi lines targeting PtrEPSP confirmed the predicted changes in PtrMYB021 expression patterns. These results demonstrate that PtrEPSP in its regulatory form and PtrhAT form a transcriptional hierarchy regulating phenylpropanoid pathway and lignin biosynthesis in Populus.

Spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) (Diptera: Drosophilidae), was monitored from 2010 to 2014 in 314-828 sites located in interior fruit-growing regions of OR and WA, United States, and BC, Canada, using traps baited with apple cider vinegar or sugar-water-yeast. Seasonal population dynamics and sex ratios were summarized for berry, cherry, stone fruit, grape, non-crop host plants, non-host sites, and for conventional IPM, certified organic, backyard, and feral sites, by region and year. Overwintering was detected in all regions and years, despite winter temperatures below -17°C. A spatial analysis was conducted using a Geographic Information System (GIS), daily weather data, geomorphometric measures of terrain, distance to water, and other variables, at each site. Overwintering success at a site, measured as Julian week of first capture of D. suzukii, was significantly related (R2 = 0.49) in cherry habitats to year, agronomic treatment, and number of winter days with temperatures >-5°C. In berry, cherry, stone fruit and grape habitats, 2011-2014, it was significantly related (R2 = 0.42) to year, agronomic treatment, the logarithm of peak population of D. suzukii in the prior autumn, latitude, elevation, and topographic wetness index. The results show that D. suzukii has adapted to exploit a succession of irrigated crops and feral habitats in mixed landscapes of a semi-arid region with cold winters and hot dry summers, and are shaping strategies for pest management and for biological control.

The oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a primary pest of stone fruits that cause significant economic damage. Larvae, which enter the host plant through shoot tips, damage shoots, and ripe fruits. Native to Asia, this pest now occurs in many fruit-growing countries, including the United States and Canada. Though the pest was previously reported from many states within the United States, its current distribution and the environmental variables that influence its distribution are not properly identified. The objectives of this study were to 1) identify the environmental factors associated with G. molesta current distribution, 2) predict the current distribution of G. molesta in Washington State (WA) using Maxent and Climex models, 3) identify those areas within WA best suited for establishment of pest free zones, areas of low pest prevalence, and pest free production areas, and 4) identify regions most at risk for further expansion of G. molesta populations as a function of climate change. The current models predicted a small portion of central WA is suitable to support G. molesta, which is consistent with observed distributions. However, climate change models predict that more areas will become suitable for the pest. These results indicate that action should be taken to monitor and reduce current populations of G. molesta to stem its potential expansion into the major commercial tree fruit production areas in the state.

Western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens (Curran; Diptera: Tephritidae), occurs in unmanaged cherries (Prunus spp.) across dry climates in Washington State and other regions in western United States and Canada. To help explain the fly's distribution in arid climates, we determined the effects of adding water to bare and grass-covered soils on pupal survival rates and adult emergence patterns of R. indifferens in central Washington. Water was added ('irrigated') or not to bare soil and grass-covered soil in cylinders pressed into the ground. Larvae were added to cylinders and pupal survival and adult fly emergence determined over three seasons. Irrigating bare soil had no effect on pupal survival or adult emergence, but in grass-covered soil, irrigation increased pupal survival (15.2-17.0% vs 6.7-9.5%) and adult emergence (2 of 3 yr, 12.8 and 24.1 vs 1.1 and 11.6%; no difference in 1 yr). Pupal survival was greater in bare (24.5-47.7%) than grass-covered soil (6.7-17.0%). Moisture was higher in irrigated than unirrigated treatments but within irrigated treatments, moisture in bare versus grass-covered soil did not differ. In both irrigated and unirrigated treatments, humidity in soil 5 cm below the surface where many pupae reside was >60%, including during summers. Results suggest R. indifferens pupae tolerate unirrigated soils during summer because soil moisture and high humidity there can prevent desiccation, contributing to the fly's wide distribution and abundance in dry climates, and that dry, grass-covered soils or mulch barriers in mid- and late-summer could reduce fly survival under some conditions.

The apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a major quarantine pest of apples (Malus domestica Borkhausen) in the United States. Apple maggot is found only in North America and negatively impacts the apple industry in the western United States by reducing grower access to export markets. To reduce the threat of apple maggot to export countries and to facilitate the movement of commercial apples, an assessment of potential risk of establishment of apple maggot is needed to predict which regions are suitable or unsuitable for the fly. We used a correlative niche model MaxEnt and a mechanistic model CLIMEX to model global potential risk of establishment of apple maggot. The MaxEnt model was developed by integrating apple maggot occurrences with global climatic variables. Apple (a major host of apple maggot) climatic suitability was used as an additional variable to include species interactions in the MaxEnt model. The CLIMEX model was developed using published apple maggot physiological tolerance thresholds. Both the MaxEnt and CLIMEX models correctly predicted the known distribution of apple maggot in North America, met biological expectations when projected to the world, and mostly agreed on climatic suitability worldwide for the fly. Degree-days at 6.7 °C, elevation, precipitation seasonality, and apple climatic suitability were the most important predictors associated with apple maggot distribution in North America. Our results can be used to make science-based international trade decisions by policy makers, and for monitoring apple maggot potential introductions in countries where it currently does not occur.

Background Acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) is an uncommon but serious condition that causes paralysis in previously healthy children. Multiple viruses can be associated with AFM. In 2018, enteroviruses D68 (EV-D68) and A71 (EV-A71) were the most common viruses detected among patients with confirmed AFM. We described and compared clinical characteristics of cases associated with EV-D68 and EV-A71. Methods Health departments report cases meeting AFM clinical criterion (acute onset of flaccid limb weakness) to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention along with medical records. Confirmed AFM cases were patients who met clinical criterion and had magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showing spinal cord lesions largely restricted to gray matter. We abstracted clinical data and laboratory results from records of confirmed case-patients with onset of limb weakness during 2018. EV-D68 and EV-A71 cases were compared using chi-square and Wilcoxan rank sum tests. Results Among 238 confirmed AFM cases, 34 had EV-D68 and 12 had EV-A71 detected in a respiratory, serum, stool, or cerebrospinal fluid specimen. Median age of EV-D68 and EV-A71 cases were 5.9 and 1.6 years, respectively (p< 0.01). EV-D68 cases came from 20 states, while 11/12 EV-A71 cases were from Colorado. Prodromal respiratory illness was more common among EV-D68 (97%) than EV-A71 cases (58%) (p< 0.01). Prodromal rash was more common among EV-A71 (58%) than EV-D68 cases (9%) (p< 0.01). At presentation, the most common symptoms accompanying limb weakness among EV-D68 cases were neck/back pain (59%), gait difficulty (56%), and fever (47%). Among EV-A71 cases, the most common symptoms were fever (67%), ataxia (67%), gait difficulty (50%), and altered consciousness (50%). EV-A71 cases were more likely to have ataxia, altered consciousness, and brainstem (92% vs. 45%) or cerebellar (75% vs. 9%) lesions on MRI (all p< 0.01). EV-D68 cases were more likely to require mechanical ventilation (44% vs. 8%, p 0.03). Conclusion These national data suggest that EV-D68 and EV-A71 are associated with overlapping but different clinical phenotypes. Differences in demographics, prodromal illness, symptoms, and brain MRI findings were identified. Additional research is needed to determine whether pathogenesis and optimal treatment also vary by virus type. Disclosures All Authors: No reported disclosures

Western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a major quarantine pest of cherries (Prunus spp.) in western North America that is often managed using the organic insecticide spinosad, but there is a question of whether its semisynthetic relative spinetoram is more toxic and better to use for controlling the fly. Here, spinosad and spinetoram effects on R. indifferens kill and oviposition were determined by exposing 3–4, 7–10, or 14–18 d old flies to dry spinosad and spinetoram (0.21 or 0.33 mg active ingredient [a.i.] per dish) and untreated cherries or to insecticide-treated cherries at 15.6, 22.5, and 29.4°C. Kill was not affected by fly age. Spinetoram killed more female flies by day 1 than spinosad at all temperatures. In both treatments, kill was lower at 15.6°C than 22.5 and 29.4°C, although a difference between 22.5 and 29.4°C was detected more often in spinosad treatments. Both insecticides killed 3–4 d old flies quickly enough to prevent oviposition, but neither prevented oviposition by 7–10 and 14–18 d old flies. Significantly, oviposition by flies exposed to spinosad and spinetoram did not differ at any temperature. Results indicate spinetoram is more toxic to R. indifferens than spinosad. However, this higher toxicity is not needed to prevent oviposition by younger flies. Furthermore, spinetoram residues are not sufficiently toxic to kill older flies quickly enough to reduce oviposition more than spinosad. Taken together, these conclusions imply that spinosad and spinetoram are equal for controlling R. indifferens infestations.

The western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), is an endemic herbivore of bitter cherry, Prunus emarginata (Douglas ex Hooker) Eaton, but ∼100 years ago established on earlier-fruiting domesticated sweet cherry, Prunus avium (L.) L. Here, we determined if eclosion times of adult R. indifferens from sweet and bitter cherry differ according to the phenology of their respective host plants and if eclosion times of the host-specific parasitoid Diachasma muliebre (Muesebeck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) attacking bitter and sweet cherry flies differ according to the eclosion phenology of their fly hosts. Fly pupae from sweet and bitter cherry fruit were collected from sympatric and allopatric sites in Washington state, and chilled at 5°C. Because timing of eclosion in R. indifferens depends on chill duration, eclosion time in wasps could also vary with chill duration. To account for this, fly pupae were chilled for 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 6, or 8 mo. Both flies and wasps eclosed earlier with longer chill durations. Eclosion times of sweet and bitter cherry flies from a sympatric site in central Washington did not differ. However, at allopatric sites in northwestern and central Washington, bitter cherry flies eclosed later than sweet and bitter cherry flies at the sympatric site. Correspondingly, D. muliebre parasitizing a more isolated bitter cherry fly population eclosed later than D. muliebre parasitizing earlier-emerging sweet and bitter cherry fly populations. These results provide evidence for D. muliebre rapidly responding to changes in host plant shifts by R. indifferens.

The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), is an introduced, quarantine pest of apple (Malus domestica Borkhausen) in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. In the eastern United States where the fly is native, fruit volatiles have been reported to be more attractive than ammonia compounds to R. pomonella. However, the opposite may be true in the western United States. Here, we determined whether newly identified western apple and western hawthorn fruit volatiles are more attractive than ammonium carbonate (AC) to R. pomonella in apple, black hawthorn, and ornamental hawthorn trees in western Washington State. In all three host trees, sticky red sphere or yellow panel traps baited with AC generally caught more flies than traps baited with lures containing the four newly developed fruit blends (modified eastern apple, western apple, western ornamental hawthorn, and western black hawthorn) or two older blends (eastern apple and eastern downy hawthorn). Fruit volatiles also displayed more variation among trapping studies conducted at different sites, in different host trees, and across years than AC. The results imply that traps baited with AC represent the best approach to monitoring R. pomonella in Washington State.

The North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) is an organization comprising plant protection regulatory officials of the three signatory countries: the United States, Canada, and Mexico. NAPPO develops Regional Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (RSPMs) as well as discussion papers on important issues related to plant protection. The Fruit Panel of NAPPO organized a Technical Assistance Group (TAG) to develop a discussion paper on the status of pest species of Rhagoletis (Diptera: Tephritidae) within the NAPPO countries. As regulations are developed to prevent the spread of these pests both within and outside of the NAPPO countries, it was important to understand the pest status of these species. This article reviews the basic biology, host range, distribution, potential to spread, management, and regulatory status of pest species of Rhagoletis within the NAPPO countries.

Environ. Entomol. 42(6): 1348Ð1355 (2013); DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/EN13148 ABSTRACT Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), an invasive pest of small and stone fruits, has been recently detected in 39 states of the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Europe. This pest attacks ripening fruit, causing economic losses including increased management costs and crop rejection. Ongoing research aims to improve the efÞcacy of monitoring traps. Studies were conducted to evaluate how physical trap features affect captures ofD.suzukii. We evaluated Þve colors, two bait surface areas, and a top and side position for the sy entry point. Studies were conducted at 16 sites spanning seven states and provinces of North America and nine crop types. Apple cider vinegar was the standard bait in all trap types. In the overall analysis, yellow-colored traps caught signiÞcantly more sies than clear, white, and black traps; and red traps caught more than clear traps. Results by color may be insuenced by crop type. Overall, the trap with a greater bait surface area caught slightly more D. suzukii than the trap with smaller area (90 vs. 40 cm 2 ). Overall, the two traps with a side-mesh entry, with or without a protective rain tent, caught more D. suzukii than the trap with a top-mesh entry and tent.

In Washington state, identification of the quarantine apple pest Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) is complicated by the presence of the cryptic species Rhagoletis zephyria Snow (Diptera: Tephritidae). Distinguishing the two flies is important because there is a zero tolerance policy for R. pomonella in apple production for export. Here, we attempt to distinguish the two species by scoring R. pomonella and R. zephyria populations from western and south-central Washington for a set of 11 nuclear markers, including four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) developed for rapid and inexpensive genotyping using Taqman real-time quantitative-polymerase chain reaction. We show that the four SNPs may be adequate in most cases for distinguishing whether a fly originated from apple or black hawthorn (the two major host plants for R. pomonella representing an economic risk) versus snowberry (the major host for R. zephyria, and not a commercial threat). However, directional introgression of R. zephyria alleles into R. pomonella can complicate the identification of flies of mixed ancestry based only on the four SNPs. Moreover, this problem is more acute in the sensitive apple-growing regions of central Washington where our results imply hybridization is common. Consequently, application of the four SNP quantitative-polymerase chain reaction assay can immediately assist ongoing apple maggot monitoring, while the development of additional genetic markers through next-generation sequencing would be valuable for increasing confidence in species identification and for assessing the threat posed by hybridization as R. pomonella further spreads into the more arid apple-growing regions of central Washington.

Sticky red spheres can be used to capture western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), but red spheres have not been definitively shown to be more attractive than yellow traps. The objective of this study was to compare fly captures on ammonia-baited red spheres and yellow spheres and panels so that sensitive detection traps for fly management can be identified. Nontarget insects could interfere with fly captures, so weights of nontarget insects on traps were also determined. Yellow spheres and panels generally caught more flies than red spheres. More males than females were caught on nearly all red and yellow traps. Saffron Thread, Marigold, Sunny Summer, and Yam Yellow spheres and panels were bright yellow and generally caught more flies, especially females, than Cherry Cobbler Red or Tartar Red spheres. Twenty Carat Yellow and Glorious Gold spheres and panels were less bright and caught fewer flies than bright yellow traps and similar numbers of flies as Tartar Red spheres, respectively. Dry weights of nontarget insects on at least one yellow trap type were greater than on red spheres in only 4 of 10 tests. Results show that bright yellow spheres and panels capture more R. indifferens than red spheres and do not consistently capture greater amounts of nontarget insects than red spheres, suggesting that they should be used instead of red spheres for detecting this fly.

Hybridization between apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), and Rhagoletis zephyria Snow (Diptera: Tephritidae) occurs in Washington State, complicating fly identifications. Here, experimentally generated F1 hybrids of R. pomonella and R. zephyria were classified using morphometric methods. Five of nine mean body size measurements of hybrids from crossing female R. pomonella × male R. zephyria were intermediate between those of nonhybrids. Aculeus lengths of hybrid females were intermediate or were more similar to those of R. pomonella than R. zephyria. Based on six or seven body size measures, 25.0% of female and 44.4% of male hybrids were correctly classified. Misclassified female and male hybrids resembled R. pomonella and one or the other parental species, respectively. Mean wing shapes of hybrid females based on landmark measurements were novel, whereas those of males were intermediate between those of nonhybrids. Based on wing shapes + natural log (In) centroid size, 90.9% of female and 66.7% of male hybrids were correctly classified. Hybrid females were misclassified as R. pomonella and more hybrid males as R. zephyria. Based on surstylus shape, 27.7% of male hybrids were correctly classified, with more being misclassified as R. pomonella. Results show wing shape + In centroid size is the most useful measure for identifying female and male hybrids and that R. pomonella traits for aculeus length and/or wing shape appear dominant to those of R. zephyria in hybrid females.

The influence of media type and moisture on adult development and pupal mortality in western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera:Tephritidae), was assessed using the pupal-adult and the larval-pupal stage. Inside containers, a higher percent of flies that emerged from dry loam was deformed (44.2%, 1-cm-depth loam; 84.4%, 5-cm-depth loam) than flies from 16% moist loam and dry and 16% moist lab soil (peat moss-sand mix) (0-14.9%). Percent of flies deformed from dry sand (22.1%, 1-cm depth; 49.5%, 5-cm depth) was greater than from 16% moist sand and dry and 16% moist peat moss (0-10.5%). Percents of flies deformed from 8% moist loam, lab soil, sand, and peat moss (0-5.8%) did not differ. Pupae suffered higher mortality at 7 and 14 d after larvae were dropped onto dry loam and dry sand (68.2-94.0%) than dry lab soil and dry peat moss (3.0-53.0%); respective mortalities at 21 and 28 d were similar (81.3-96.0 versus 64.7-97.9%). Pupal mortality in moist media was lower (0.5-40.3%) than in dry media. In outdoor tests, pupal mortality was also higher in dry loam than other dry media. In nature, 60.9% of pupae in dry sandy loams in late summer were dead. Results suggest R. indifferens has not yet evolved to fully cope with dry soils and that pupation in media with traits similar to those of peat moss or a peat moss-sand mix could reduce negative effects of dry environments on fly survival.

ABSTBACT The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a major pest of commercially grown domesticated apple (Malus domestica Borkhausen) in North America. The shift of the fly from its native host hawthorn (Crataegus mollis) to apple in the eastern United States is often cited as an example of incipient sympatric speciation in action. However, R. pomonella is also present in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States where it infests apple, native black hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii), and introduced English ornamental hawthorn (C. monogyna). It is believed that R. pomonella was introduced to the Portland, OR, area via larval-infested apples from the east. The fly subsequently spread through the region, shifting onto black hawthorn and ornamental hawthorn as additional hosts as it spread. It is also possible, however, that R. pomonella is native to black hawthorn in the Pacific Northwest and switched to infest apple and ornamental hawthorn after the introduction of these two alternative hosts to the region. Here, we document the distribution of R. pomonella through the Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain states of the western United States to help clarify the origin (s) of the fly outside the eastern United States. We report a distribution pattern consistent with the hypothesis that R. pomonella was introduced to the Pacific Northwest via infested apples. In particular, the low levels or lack of C. dougliasii-infesting R. pomonella east of the Cascade Mountains in the states of Washington, OR, and Idaho implies that the fly is not native on black hawthorn and is of recent origin. We discuss the evolutionary and applied implications of the results with respect to our current understanding of host race formation and control for R. pomonella.

The western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, infests introduced, domesticated sweet [Prunus avium (L.) L.], and tart cherries (Prunus cerasus L.) as well as native bitter cherry, Prunus emarginata (Douglas) Eaton. Bitter cherries are smaller than sweet and tart cherries and this could affect various life history traits of flies. The objectives of the current study were to determine 1) if body size and egg loads of flies infesting sweet, tart, and bitter cherries differ from one another; and 2) if any observed body size differences are genetically based or caused by the host fruit environment. Pupae and adults of both sexes reared from larval-infested sweet and tart cherries collected in Washington and Montana were larger than those reared from bitter cherries. In addition, flies of both sexes caught on traps in sweet and tart cherry trees were larger than those caught in bitter cherry trees and females trapped from sweet and tart cherry trees had 54.0-98.8% more eggs. The progeny of flies from naturally-infested sweet and bitter cherries reared for one generation in the laboratory on sweet cherry did not differ in size. The same also was true for progeny of sweet and bitter cherry flies reared in the field on bitter cherry. The results suggest that the larger body sizes of flies from sweet and tart cherries than bitter cherries in the field are caused by host fruit and not genetic factors.

Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) and Rhagoletis zephyria Snow (Diptera: Tephritidae) both occur in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and are frequently confused with one another due to their morphological similarity. The apple maggot, R. pomonella, is a threat to commercial apples [Malus domestica (Borkh.) Borkh.] in the Pacific Northwest, whereas R. zephyria attacks snowberry (Symphoricarpos Dill. ex Juss) and is not considered a threat. Configuration of the surstyli in males is used to discriminate between species, but this character shows overlap. In this study, we reexamined surstyli configurations in the two species. We then used geometric morphometrics to test the hypotheses that shapes of surstyli and of aculei between the two species differ and that combining aculeus shape and size measures improves discrimination. We found that all R. pomonella had an inwardly curved surstyli configuration (based on a ratio of width across bases of prensisetae to width between the outer edges of the surstyli near their ends), whereas R. zephyria included specimens having either a parallel or divergent configuration. Using canonical variates analysis, multivariate analysis of variance, and an assignments test, we found that surstylus shape classified 99.8% of males correctly to species. Aculeus shape accurately classified 85.3% of females to species. Combining aculeus shape and length increased classification accuracy to 94.5%. Within species, surstylus and aculeus shape did not discriminate among fly populations from different host fruit, collection areas, or both. Use of surstylus shape would benefit regulatory agencies that depend on accurate identifications of R. pomonella for quarantine and management measures.

Spinosad bait is used to control western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), by killing flies before they oviposit. However, effects of different insecticide baits on management of reproductively mature flies are largely unknown. Objectives here were to determine mortality and oviposition of reproductively mature R. indifferens exposed to different insecticide baits for varying periods in the presence and absence of dried yeast extract and sucrose food. Spinosad bait (spinosad in a mix of protein, sugar, and other ingredients) was compared with acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, and imidacloprid in sucrose or Nu-Lure + sucrose bait. When flies were exposed to treatments and then offered cherries, Prunus avium (L.) L., for oviposition or when they were exposed to treatments and cherries simultaneously, both thiamethoxam bait and imidacloprid bait resulted in higher mortality and lower oviposition than spinosad bait and acetamiprid bait. Exposures to thiamethoxam bait and imidacloprid bait for six and 24 h were similarly effective, but 6-h exposures to spinosad bait and acetamiprid bait were less effective than 24-h exposures. There was little difference between sucrose and Nu-Lure + sucrose baits. When food was present, thiamethoxam bait and imidacloprid bait caused greater mortality and lower oviposition than spinosad bait and acetamiprid bait, but when food was absent, patterns were less consistent. Because of its ability to kill flies sooner after it is exposed to flies when food is present or absent, thiamethoxam or imidacloprid in sucrose or Nu-Lure bait may reduce infestations in cherries more than spinosad bait when mature R. indifferens are present in orchards.

Western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a major pest of sweet cherry, Prunus avium (L.) L. (Rosales: Rosaceae), that is conventionally controlled using insecticides. One alternative to the use of insecticides alone for fly control could be fumigation of the fly's overwintering habitat using the fungus Muscodor albus Worapong, Strobel & Hess (Xylariales: Xylariaceae) in conjunction with reduced insecticide use. The fungus produces a mixture of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are biocidal for a variety of organisms. In this study, the main objectives were to determine the effects of M. albus VOCs on mortality of R. indifferens pupae and on adult emergence under laboratory conditions. In fumigation chamber experiments, a 14-d exposure of pupae in soil to VOCs resulted in 61.9% control, and exposure to VOCs for 7, 10, and 14 d reduced fly emergence by 44.2, 70.0, and 86.3%, respectively, relative to controls. In an experiment using plastic covers to retain VOCs in treated soil, a concentration of 1% M. albus formulation (fungus + rye grain) did not affect pupal mortality and fly emergence, but a concentration of 5% M. albus formulation resulted in 27.4% control and reduced fly emergence by 30.1% relative to the control. Larvae of R. indifferens that were dropped onto soil with 1% M. albus formulation were not affected by the fungus. Results indicate that prolonged exposure and high concentrations of M. albus VOCs can cause significant mortality of R. indifferens pupae in soil and delay adult emergence.

Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a quarantine pest of apple (Malus sp.) in Washington state that is almost identical morphologically to Rhagoletis zephyria Snow, a nonpest of apple. Historically, the longer ovipositor in R. pomonella has been used to separate it from R. zephyria, despite overlap in ovipositor lengths. Here, the objectives were to determine whether use of multiple body measurements and wing shape can improve discrimination of the species. Ovipositor lengths allowed 94.6% correct identification of female R. pomonella but only 7.0% correct identification of R. zephyria. We found that multiple body measurements and wing shape can better separate these species. Canonical variates analysis (CVA) of nine body measurements in female flies largely separated the species. In contrast, CVA of nine body measurements poorly separated the males of these species. Discriminant analysis using nine body measurements classified female R. pomonella and R. zephyria with 95.4 and 100% accuracy, respectively. Geometric morphometrics and CVA separated wing shapes between species in both sexes. Bookstein shape coordinates indicated that the wing of R. pomonella is more tapered at the tip than that of R. zephyria. Use of wing shape in an assignments test identified female R. pomonella with 98.5% and female R. zephyria with 99.0% accuracy, and it correctly identified 100% of flies whose identities were questionable based on ovipositor lengths. Results indicate that use of multiple body measurements or wing shape is an improvement over the use of ovipositor length alone for identifying female R. pomonella and R. zephyria in Washington state.

Despite significant progress in reducing the incidence of tuberculosis in nonhuman primates (NHPs) maintained in captivity, outbreaks continue to occur in established colonies, with potential serious consequences in human exposures, animal losses, disruption of research, and costs related to disease control efforts. The intradermal tuberculin skin test (TST) using mammalian old tuberculin (MOT) has been the mainstay of NHP tuberculosis surveillance and antemortem diagnosis for more than 60 years. But limitations of the TST, particularly its inability to reliably identify animals with latent TB infections, make it unsuitable for use as a single, standalone test for TB surveillance in nonhuman primates in the 21st century. Advances in technology and the availability of Mycobacterium spp. genomic sequence data have facilitated the development and evaluation of new immune-based screening assays as possible adjuncts and alternatives to the TST, including in vitro whole blood assays that measure the release of interferon gamma in response to stimulation with tuberculin or specific mycobacterial antigens, and assays that detect antibodies to highly immunogenic secreted proteins unique to M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, and other species belonging to the M. tuberculosis complex. It is becoming apparent that no single screening test will meet all the requirements for surveillance and diagnosis of tuberculosis in nonhuman primates. Instead, the use of several tests in combination can increase the overall sensitivity and specificity of screening and surveillance programs and likely represents the future of TB testing in nonhuman primates. In this article we describe the characteristics of these newer screening tests and discuss their potential contributions to NHP tuberculosis surveillance programs.

Background After Hurricane Katrina, an estimated 200,000 persons were evacuated to the Houston metropolitan area, >27,000 of whom were housed in 1 large "megashelter," the Reliant Park Complex. We investigated an outbreak of gastroenteritis reported among the evacuees who resided in the Reliant Park Complex to assess the spread of the infectious agent, norovirus, and to implement and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions used for control. Methods Public health authorities conducted surveillance of gastroenteritis among evacuees treated at the Reliant Park Medical Clinic during 2-12 September 2005. Basic demographic and clinical data were recorded. Specimens of stool and vomitus were collected and tested for bacteria, parasites, and viruses. Shelter census data were used to estimate the daily incidence of disease. Results During a period of 11 days, >1000 patients were treated at the clinic for gastroenteritis, which accounted for 17% of all clinic visits. Norovirus was the sole enteric pathogen identified, but multiple different strains were involved. Among the evacuees residing in the Reliant Park Complex, the incidence of gastroenteritis was estimated to be 4.6 visits per 1000 persons per day, and among the evacuees who resided there for 9 days, 1 (4%) of 24 persons would have been ill. Intensive public health measures were promptly instituted but did not definitively slow the progression of the outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis. Conclusions Our investigation underscores the difficulties in managing such outbreaks in crowded settings and the need for rapid, sensitive laboratory assays to detect norovirus. Additional research is needed to establish more effective measures to control and prevent this highly contagious gastrointestinal illness.

Cutaneous infection with rapidly growing mycobacteria is uncommon and diagnosis may be difficult. However, the histopathological features are distinctive and may aid diagnosis. The three pathogenic species, Mycobacterium fortuitum, M. chelonae and M. abscessus, show major differences in their antimicrobial sensitivities, and species identification is therefore important. We describe a case of infection with M. abscessus, and discuss the clinical and pathological features of such infections, and approaches to their treatment.

Effects of different concentrations of GF-120 NF Naturalyte Fruit Fly Bait on attraction and feeding responses, mortality, and control of the western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, were determined. In the laboratory, flies that had been exposed to sugar and yeast extract and then deprived of all food for 16-20 h were attracted to 40.0% GF-120, but not to 0.6 and 4.8% GF-120 (vol:vol). Nonstarved flies were not attracted to any concentration. Flies in the field were not attracted to 55.6% GF-120 on cherry leaves, and few flies fed on the bait. In the laboratory, males fed for shorter durations on and ingested lower amounts of 0.6% than 4.8 or 40.0% GF-120, but females fed equally on all concentrations. Spinosad in GF-120 was highly toxic to flies. Lethal concentrations50 (LC50 values) of spinosad for starved flies at 1-4 d were 1.5-0.7 ppm. When gravid flies were exposed to cherries treated with 0.6, 4.8, and 40.0% GF-120, mortality was greater at each higher concentration, but none prevented oviposition. Field spray tests comparing 0.6, 4.8, and 40.0% GF-120 in 225 ml of spray per cherry tree resulted in 79-94% lower larval infestations than in controls, but no differences were seen among the concentrations. Evidence from this study indicates that fresh 40.0% GF-120 was attractive in the laboratory but that flies were not attracted to fresh GF-120 from far distances within trees, suggesting that suppression of populations is caused in large part by flies finding the bait through normal movement over large areas.

Two native trees and one introduced tree in the coast forest ecosystem in southwestern Washington state were identified as new host records for the western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), in 2002 and 2003. Key life history characteristics of flies on or from the new hosts also were examined. Rearing of larvae to adults confirmed native cascara, Rhamnus purshiana DC.; black hawthorn, Crataegus douglasii Lindl.; and introduced cherry laurel, Prunus laurocerasus L., are suitable developmental hosts. In addition, two flies reared from cascara had wing patterns apparently not reported previously, with one keying out to R. indifferens. The numbers of larvae that emerged from fruit of the new hosts and a known host, bitter cherry, Prunus emarginata (Dougl. ex. Hook) D. Dietr., were lower than from fruit of sweet and sour cherries, Prunus avium (L.) L. and Prunus cerasus L. Seasonal patterns of adult abundance in cascara, black hawthorn, and cherry laurel as determ...

In laboratory experiments, western cherry fruit flies, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, were exposed to sweet cherries, aphid honeydew, and bird feces to determine fly longevity and fecundity. Longevity was not sustained in females and males exposed to intact unripe cherries or no food, whereas it was in females exposed to intact, fully-ripe cherries, and in females and males exposed to opened unripe or ripe cherries. Females exposed to intact fully-ripe cherries alone usually survived as long as females exposed to sucrose-yeast diets, but fecundity of flies exposed to cherries (79.5–110.8 eggs/female) was lower than that of flies exposed continuously to sucrose-yeast diets (277.5–326.2 eggs/female). Longevity of flies exposed to aphid honeydew was sustained and was similar to that of flies exposed to intact ripe cherries, sucrose-yeast, and sucrose diets. However, exposure to aphid honeydew or bird feces in the absence of ripe cherries did not result in high fecundity (4.6–32.2 eggs/female). Despite the inability of flies to extract nutrients from unripe cherries and the moderate fecundity of flies that were exposed to intact ripe cherries alone, R. indifferens was clearly capable of using its principal host fruit for both sustained longevity and egg production. Results suggest cherries damaged by birds throughout the season and intact fully-ripe cherries later in the season can contribute about the same nutrition as honeydew to female longevity, but that cherries contribute significantly more than either honeydew or bird feces to fecundity in nature.

We consider asymptotic approximations to joint posterior distributions in situations where the full conditional distributions referred to in Gibbs sampling are asymptotically normal. Our development focuses on problems where data augmentation facilitates simpler calculations, but results hold more generally. Asymptotic mean vectors are obtained as simultaneous solutions to fixed point equations that arise naturally in the development. Asymptotic covariance matrices flow naturally from the work of Arnold & Press (1989) and involve the conditional asymptotic covariance matrices and first derivative matrices for conditional mean functions. When the fixed point equations admit an analytical solution, explicit formulae are subsequently obtained for the covariance structure of the joint limiting distribution, which may shed light on the use of the given statistical model. Two illustrations are given.

The diurnal and seasonal activity patterns of the western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, were determined on three sweet cherry trees, Prunus avium (L.), from 0700 to 1900 hours during June and July 2001 in Yakima County, WA. There were significant effects of time of day and season on numbers of flies seen on fruit relative to leaves, indicating that presence on or attraction to these substrates for feeding, mating, or oviposition, whether caused by visual or chemical cues, was greatly modified by temperature. When temperatures were 15-16°C at 0700 hours in early June, flies of both sexes were seen mostly on leaves, but when the temperature reached 20°C, more flies of both sexes moved onto fruit. Peak fly sightings occurred at 25-35°C, usually after 1000 hours. At >35°C, most flies vanished from view, and those seen were less active. Over the entire season, males were seen four times more often than females and spent more time on fruit than on leaves. Females were seen equally on and spent equal time on fruit and leaves when temperatures were 20-35°C. Mating was initiated on fruit but was completed on fruit and leaves. Overall fly sightings and daily temperatures were positively correlated early in the season when it was cooler, uncorrelated in the middle of the season, and negatively correlated in late season when it was warmest. The results show that R. indifferens presence and times spent on fruit and leaves are greatly altered by daily and seasonal changes in temperature, but they also suggest that at 20-35°C substrate-seeking behaviors of each sex do not change with time of day or season.

Scirtothrips perseae Nakahara causes significant scarring of avocado fruit and is the most serious pest of avocado in southern California. Because it was described only in 1997, no information that can be used for its control exists, including the relationships between its densities on leaves and fruit and scarring damage on fruit. To determine these relationships, percentages of scarring damage on avocado fruit were regressed against thrips numbers/leaf and numbers/fruit using data collected from three orchards in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties, CA, from 1997 through 1999. Thrips population increases were positively related to leaf growth flushes. Numbers of first and second instars, total larvae, and adults/leaf were all predictive of scarring on fruit. Peaks of three to five larvae/leaf before and during fruit set predicted 6–15% economic scarring damage on fruit from October through December, whereas means of 0.5–1.5 larvae/small fruit predicted 22–51% scarring. Fruit were most susceptible to damage within a 2-wk period during and shortly after fruit set when they measured 0.53–1.42 cm long. Results suggest S. perseae numbers on leaves during fruit set can be used to predict scarring damage on fruit, and that damage thresholds may be ≤5 larvae/leaf during this time. Because low numbers of larvae on fruit within a 2-wk period can result in high scarring damage, early treatments when thrips are on leaves, just before they move onto fruit, may help prevent damage to fruit.

Helicopter applications using abamectin in different spray volumes were made against Scirtothrips perseae Nakahara in Ventura County, CA. On small (2.2 m tall) trees, spray coverage on water-sensitive papers was 24–48% and 43–97% for 468 and 935 liter/ha volume treatments, respectively. On large (6.2–8.1 m tall) trees, spray coverage was lower and quite variable, from 1 to 28% and 10 to 70% for 468 and 935 liter/ha treatments, respectively. On small trees, 468, 701, and 935 liter/ha with a high abamectin rate (26 g [AI]/ha) were equally effective against larvae from 13 to 27 d after treatment (DAT). On medium (4.2 m tall) trees, 468 and 935 liter/ha with the high rate were equally effective from 23 to 113 DAT. On large (6.5–8.1 m tall) trees, 468 and 935 liter/ha with a low abamectin rate (13 g [AI]/ha) were ineffective in three tests. In a fourth large (6.8 m tall) tree test, 468 and 935 liter/ha with the high rate were effective at 3 and 37 DAT. In a fifth large (6.2 m tall) tree test, 468-1, 403 liter/ha with the high and 935 liter/ha with the low rate were equally effective 2-22 DAT. After all effective treatments, thrips numbers were lower than in controls for 1–3 mo. However, stable and highest reductions in populations were sometimes delayed until 20–23 DAT even when coverage was high. The variability in spray coverage on the lower levels of large trees and the delayed effect may explain inconsistencies in the reporting of or in actual aerial application results.

The major goal of this article was to review and synthesize the empirical research on caregiver gender and psychiatric morbidity, with the aim of answering three questions: (a) Is there greater psychiatric morbidity among female than male caregivers, (b) is the excess psychiatric morbidity among female caregivers attributable to caregiving, and (c) what factors in the caregiving situation contribute to the excess psychiatric morbidity among female caregivers? In almost all studies reviewed, women caregivers reported more psychiatric symptoms than men caregivers. Comparisons with noncaregiving community samples suggest that female caregivers experience excess psychiatric morbidity attributable to caregiving. Using a stress process model as an organizing framework, the study demonstrated that at all stages of the stress process, women are at greater risk for psychiatric morbidity than men. Directions for future research and implications for interventions and public policy are discussed.

The ecology, infestation levels, and populations of Anthonomus weevils were documented in a diflubenzuron (Dimilin)-treated Malpighia glabra (L.) grove in El Trapiche, Mexico, from January 1995 to March 1998 and in an untreated grove in El Petacal (≈42 km away) from June 1997 to April 1998. Anthonomus caracasius (Faust) comprised 50-87% of the adult weevils from July 1997 through March 1998 in El Trapiche. A. sisyphus Clark comprised 3-25% of the weevils during the same period and A. alboscutellatus Champion 0-22%. A. caracasius was not found in El Petacal, and A. sisyphus represented 38-100% of adults at this site from June 1997 to April 1998. A. alboscutellatus represented 0-50% of adults during this period in El Petacal. A. unipustulatus Champion was rare at both sites. A. sisyphus developed only in fruits. A. unipustulatus developed inside wild Malpighiaceae fruit. A. caracasius and A. alboscutellatus developed only in flower buds. Up to 30 and 15% of fruits from El Trapiche and El Petacal, respectively, were positive for weevil eggs in 1997. Eggs normally occurred singly on the lower half of fruits. Up to 74 and 97% of fruits from El Trapiche and El Petacal, respectively, were infested with larvae, pupae, and adults in 1997. A. sisyphus, A. caracasius, and A. alboscutellatus were found throughout the year on M. glabra, but numbers were highest during the rainy season, from June to November, in El Trapiche from 1995 to 1998. M. glabra fruit production was highest from April to June, before the time when weevils were most abundant. There were no correlations between adult weevil population densities and fruit yields during these 3 yr, probably because of unnatural flowering cycles caused by year-round irrigation.

Author(s): Hoover, Kelli; Alaniz, Susan A.; Yee, Julie L.; Rocke, David; Hammock, Bruce D.; Duffey, Sean S. | Abstract: Insecticidal pathogens such as baculoviruses are currently under intensive development as biorational agents for the control of lepidopteran pests. However, because the efficacy of these orally infective viruses is influenced by host diet, our ability to use baculoviruses effectively in an integrated pest management program requires understanding the influence of dietary components on the disease process. Nutritional stress caused by differences in the quality (casein or soy) or quantity (0-8%) of dietary protein altered the postinfectional course of disease caused by Autogropha californica M nucelopolyhedrovirus in 2 species of noctuids, Heliothis virescens (F.) and Tnchoplusia ni (Hubner). Lethal times of larvae infected with either the wild-type virus or a recombinant expressing a scorpion toxin (AaIT) derived from this parent virus were similarly affected by dietary protein. In general, the higher the level of dietary protein the shorter the lethal times. However, the influence of protein quality on lethal times depended on the insect species tested. The effect of chlorogenic acid on disease depended on dietary protein levels. At high protein concentrations, chlorogenic acid decreased speed of kill; whereas, at low protein levels, the phenolic had the opposite effect. The common factor among all treatments was that the faster larvae grew, the faster they died from viral infection. We suggest that insects that grow faster may support faster rates of viral replication in infected hosts. From an ecological perspective, it is possible that plants of higher protein content may increase the potential for the development of baculoviral epizootics in insect populations.

Results of earlier studies designed to determine adult whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring, densities at which cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., should be treated to reduce honeydew contamination have been variable. In this study, we determined the relationship between frequency of insecticide applications triggered by thresholds of 5, 10, 15, and 25 adult whiteflies per leaf and honeydew production by B. argentifolii feeding on cotton. Honeydew production was monitored on 15 dates from 21 May to 27 August 1996 in Brawley, CA, using water-sensitive papers placed on upper and lower leaves and bolls. On 3 dates, lint was collected and analyzed for sugars using high-performance liquid chromatography. Densities of adults per 5th mainstem leaf, adults per 10-s vacuum sample, and whitefly immature instars per square centimeter of leaf were generally higher in control plots (1 insecticide application), plots treated at 25 adults (4 applications), and untreated plots than in plots treated at 5, 10, and 15 adults (11, 6, and 5 applications, respectively). In general, numbers of honeydew drops per square centimeter were higher in control, 25-adult, and untreated plots than in 5-, 10-, and 15-adult plots. Papers placed on uppermost bolls received more drops later in the season than did papers placed on the lowest bolls. Honeydew drop production was generally lowest throughout the season in the 5-adult treatment. However, it was not significantly different than the 10- or 15-adult treatments on 13, 20, and 27 August. Amounts (micrograms) of trehalulose on top and bottom bolls were generally highest in the control treatment and lowest in the 5-adult treatment, but there were generally no significant differences among amounts from 5-, 10-, and 15-adult treatments. Honeydew drop densities were unexpectedly low in control and untreated plots on some later dates. Control and untreated plants also had fewer leaves than other plants during these times, suggesting leaf loss may account for some variability in honeydew production during late season. Seedcotton yields differed only between 10- and 25-adult threshold plots. At Brawley, CA, insecticide treatments at 5 and 10 adults per leaf seemed equally sufficient for reducing whitefly honeydew production. However, by treating at the 10 threshold, fewer applications were needed. This would reduce the immediate costs to growers, and also would reduce long term problems associated with insecticide resistance.