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This Clinical Practice Guideline addresses severe frostbite treatment. We defined severe frostbite as atmospheric cooling that results in a perfusion deficit to the extremities. We limited our review to adults and excluded cold contact or rapid freeze injuries that resulted in isolated devitalized tissue. After developing population, intervention, comparator, outcomes (PICO) questions, a comprehensive literature search was conducted with the help of a professional medical librarian. Available literature was reviewed and systematically evaluated. Recommendations based on the available scientific evidence were formulated through consensus of a multidisciplinary committee. We conditionally recommend the use of rapid rewarming in a 38 to 42°C water bath and the use of thrombolytics for fewer amputations and/or a more distal level of amputation. We conditionally recommend the use of "early" administration of thrombolytics (≤12 hours from rewarming) compared to "later" administration of thrombolytics for fewer amputations and/or a more distal level of amputation. No recommendation could be formed on the use of vascular imaging studies to determine the use of and/or the time to initiate thrombolytic therapy. No recommendation could be formed on the use of intravenous thrombolytics compared to the use of intra-arterial thrombolytics on fewer amputations and/or a more distal level of amputation. No recommendation could be formed on the use of iloprost resulting in fewer amputations and/or more distal levels of amputation. No recommendation could be formed on the use of diagnostic imaging modalities for surgical planning on fewer amputations, a more distal level of amputation, or earlier timing of amputation., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Burn Association. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The hypermetabolic response from a burn injury is the highest of the critically ill patient population. When coupled with the hypermetabolic response, preexisting malnutrition may increase the hospital resources used. The goal of this study was to evaluate the rate of malnutrition in burn patients and the associated hospital resource utilization. We collected prospective data on burn patients 18 years or older with a burn at least 10% TBSA admitted to a regional burn center. Demographics, %TBSA, comorbidities, length of stay (LOS), and standardized LOS (LOS/%TBSA) were evaluated on 49 patients. A multivariable regression model was constructed. Nutrition assessment was completed within 24 to 48 hours of admission including an SGA (Subjective Global Assessment) classification. SGA A (well-nourished) was compared to SGA B and C (malnourished). Fourteen patients (28.6%) in this study were malnourished. Malnourished patients were not statistically different with respect to median age (50 vs 39; P = .08) and body mass index (22.9 vs 26.5; P = .08) compared to the well-nourished group. However, malnourished patients had significantly longer median LOS (21.0 vs 11.0 days, P = .01) and LOS/%TBSA (1.69 vs 0.83, P = .001) than the well-nourished group. Being malnourished was a significant independent predictor of above-median LOS/%TBSA (P = .027) with an odds ratio of 5.61 (95% CI 1.215-25.890). The rate of malnutrition is important given the high metabolic demands of these patients. Malnutrition increased the resource requirements via higher standardized LOS. This underscores the importance of completing SGA on admission to identify malnutrition early on to optimize nutrition intervention during the patients' hospital stay., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Burn Association. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Social determinants of health (SDoH) influence risk of injury. We conducted a population-based, case-control study to identify which social determinants influence burn injury in children. Children (≤16 years of age) admitted to a Canadian regional burn center between January 1, 1999 and March 30, 2017 were matched based on age, sex, and geographic location 1:5 with an uninjured control cohort from the general population. Population-level administrative data describing the SDoH at the Manitoba Center for Health Policy (MCHP) were compared between the cohorts. Specific SDoH were chosen based on a published systematic review conducted by the research team. In the final multivariable model, children from a low-income household odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval) 1.97 (1.46, 2.65), in care 1.57 (1.11, 2.21), from a family that received income assistance 1.71 (1.33, 2.19) and born to a teen mother 1.43 (1.13, 1.81) were significantly associated with an increased risk of pediatric burn injury. This study identified SDoH that are associated with an increased risk of burn injury. This case-control study supports the finding that children from a low-income household, children in care, from a family that received income assistance, and children born to a teen mother are at an elevated risk of burn injury. Identifying children at increased potential risk allows targeting of burn risk reduction and home safety programs., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Burn Association. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Social complexity in health outcomes has been attributed to greater risk of injury, adverse health consequences, and early death in a variety of populations. To determine what social complexity factors associated with burn injury in children, a systematic review of the literature was performed. Two different databases (PubMed and SCOPUS) were searched for articles related to environmental and social determinants of burn injury. Selected literature examined social complexity factors to establish the strength of evidence in relation to incidence of burn injury in children. The extent of factors and the most common social complexities were reviewed. The 641 manuscripts found in PubMed and 327 from SCOPUS were initially reviewed for duplication and English language. Subsequently, manuscripts were selected for relevance based on titles followed by abstracts. Forty-seven manuscripts were reviewed in their entirety. The literature supports a relationship between an increased incidence of pediatric burns in lower income families, children with behavioral disorders, fewer years of parental education and children residing in a rural setting. The majority of reports came from Europe followed by Australia, and scattered information from other countries. Social complexity factors in the environment of the child are associated with an increased risk of burn injury in children. The literature supports the influence of lower income, lower parental education, behavioral disorders and living rurally with an increased incidence of injury. By identifying children at increased risk, it is possible to develop targeted burn prevention and education programs to mitigate burn injury., (© American Burn Association 2019. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Burns continue to be a common cause of morbidity around the world, and socioeconomic status has been linked to high-burn risk in developed and developing countries. The purpose of this study was to define in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: 1) demographics of adult patients with severe burns; 2) the relationship between household income and burn incidence; and 3) specific geographic areas that may benefit from targeted burn prevention strategies. We conducted a retrospective study of adult (>18 years) patients in Winnipeg, with burns severe enough to require at least 1 day of hospitalization between 2006 and 2016. Area-level median household income data at two geographic levels were collected from 2011 Census based on patient postal codes. Of 207 patients that met study criteria, 156 (75.4%) were male. Mean age was 44.5 ± 16.9 years, and the most common cause of burns was fire/flame (52.2%). The analysis of income data revealed that lower area-level income groups had a higher incidence of burns, with the lowest income quintile group having 5.4 times higher incidence than highest income quintile group. Spatial analysis software was used to map the incidence rates, and clusters of high-risk burns were identified in and around the city center region. Overall, our study showed an inverse relationship between area-level income and burn injury incidence. The identification and mapping of high incidence hotspots will allow policy makers to target groups who will benefit most from burn prevention strategies.

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) patients are increasingly managed in burn units. Although treated similarly to burns, the healthcare resource utilization (HRU) in NF appears to be greater. Accurate knowledge of the HRU is important to better allocate resources and to compare outcomes between units. The goal of this study is to provide better understanding of the HRU for NF compared with burns. A retrospective chart review of patients ≥18 years admitted to two regional tertiary referral centers with either NF or burns requiring surgery. The authors examined age, sex, %TBSA, geographic region, anatomical location, length of stay (LOS) in hospital, LOS in intensive care unit, number of operative procedures, number of packed red blood cells transfused, amputation, death, and use of free tissue transfer or skin graft. There were 210 NF and 209 burn patients. The NF cohort had a smaller TBSA (3.3 vs 10.0%), longer LOS (20 vs 14 days), and consequently a longer LOS/%TBSA (6.0 vs 1.5 days). This difference persisted after adjusting for age. More of the NF cohort (44.8%) spent ≥1 day in the intensive care unit. The NF cohort also had more procedures (median 2 vs 1), required blood (46.2 vs 16.7%), died in hospital (13.3 vs 4.3%), had an amputation (12.4 vs 4.8%), or required free tissue transfer (7.6 vs 2.9%). This study shows that NF requires substantially more HRU compared with burns. This information is important in recognizing the impact of these patients on burn units and planning for allocation of appropriate resources.

Levamisole is an increasingly common cocaine adulterant that can cause severe and rapid onset cutaneous vasculitis in humans. While most cases may be managed conservatively, we describe a series of patients in whom the extent of skin and soft tissue necrosis mandated surgical intervention. A retrospective review of all patients admitted to one of two regional burn centers between 2006 and 2016 for soft tissue necrosis after exposure to levamisole-adulterated cocaine was included in our study. Ten patients, majority female (9/10) with an average age of 43.4 years (range 31-57), were included. Cocaine usage before presentation averaged 6 days (range 1-14). Presenting complaints consisted of arthralgia (5/10), fever (7/10), and purpuric lesions (10/10). Average TBSA involvement was 23.5% (range 4-70). Immunological testing revealed perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (pANCA+) in 8 of 10 and cytoplasmic antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (cANCA+) in 4 of 8 patients. Operative intervention occurred by postadmission day 11.6 (range 3-30). The mean number of operations required was 3 (range 2-6); length of stay averaged 46.8 days (range 14-120); and survival to discharge was 100% (10/10). To our knowledge, this is the largest case study detailing the surgical management of levamisole-associated skin necrosis. Additionally, we describe the most extensive case of this disease process at 70% TBSA involvement. Based on our experience, we recommend waiting for purpuric rash resolution and soft tissue necrosis to be fully demarcated before fascial debridement and then staged skin grafting with allograft followed by autograft.

Limited research exists examining long-term mental and physical health outcomes in adult survivors of pediatric burns. The authors examine the postinjury lifetime prevalence of common mental and physical disorders in a large pediatric burn cohort and compare the results with matched controls. Seven hundred and forty five survivors of childhood burns identified in the Burn Registry (<18 years old and total BSA >1% between April 1, 1988 and March 31, 2010) were matched 1:5 to the general population based on age at time of injury (index date), sex, and geographic residence. Postinjury rate ratio (RR) was used to compare burn cases and control cohorts for common mental and physical illnesses through physician billings, and hospital claims. RR was adjusted for sex, rural residence, and income. Compared with matched controls, postburn cases had significantly higher RR of all mental disorders, which remained significant (P < .05) after adjustment (major depression RR = 1.5 [confidence limit {CL}: 1.2-1.8], anxiety disorder RR = 1.5 [CL: 1.3-1.8), substance abuse RR = 2.3 [CL: 1.7-3.2], suicide attempt RR = 4.3 [CL: 1.6-12.1], or any mental disorder RR = 1.5 [CL: 1.3-1.8]). The relative rate of some physical illnesses was also significantly increased in burn survivors: arthritis RR = 1.2 (CL: 1.1-1.4), fractures RR = 1.4 (CL: 1.2-1.6), total respiratory morbidity RR = 1.1 (CL: 1.02-1.3), and any physical illness RR = 1.2 (CL: 1.1-1.3). Adult survivors of childhood burn injury have significantly increased rates of postburn mental and physical illnesses. Screening and appropriate management of these illnesses is essential when caring for this population.

Pediatric burn injuries are common, and the stress of caring for them can affect caregivers' health. This study's objective was to examine the rates of common mental and physical disorders of parents of burn-injured children (cases) compared with matched controls (controls). This is a population-based study linking the Regional Pediatric burn registry with administrative health information. Pediatric burn cases were matched 1:5 with control children from the general population based on age, sex, and geographical location then parents identified. One thousand and twenty-six parental cases and 4858 controls were identified. International Classification of Disease codes were used to identify diagnoses of common mental and physical disorders. Using rates of disease 2 years before and 2 years after the date of burn, the changes in the relative rates of health outcomes were compared between the cases and the controls. The cases had higher rates of postinjury mental and physical illness compared with the matches. However, it was found that controls also had increased rates postindex date and additionally cases had increased rates of preinjury illnesses. There was no difference in the relative rates of illnesses between the groups from pre- to post-index date. The higher rate of illness in cases postinjury could be explained by preinjury illness, and similar rate increases in the control cohort. Evaluation of the effect of a child's burn injury on parents should take into context the preexisting health of the parent. Socioeconomic factors associated with increased risk of burns may also be associated with adverse health outcomes.

Micronutrient supplementation is a common practice throughout many burn centers across North America; however, uncertainty pertaining to dose, duration, and side effects of such supplements persists. The authors prospectively collected data from 23 hospitalized patients with burn sizes ranging from 10 to 93% TBSA. Each patient received a daily multivitamin and mineral supplement, 50 mg zinc (Zn) daily, and 500 mg vitamin C twice daily. Supplements were administered orally or enterally. Albumin, prealbumin, C-reactive protein, serum Zn, and serum copper were measured weekly during hospital admission until levels were within normal reference range. Our study concluded that 50 mg daily dose of Zn resulted in normal serum levels in 19 of 23 patients at discharge; 50 mg Zn supplementation did not interfere with serum copper levels; and Zn supplements, regardless of administration route, did not result in gastrointestinal side effects.

The objective of this work is to study the stability of three novel topical antimicrobial dressings consisting of amide N-chloramine structures against ethylene oxide sterilization. Cotton gauze samples bonded with one of three amide N-chloramine structures were subjected to standard ethylene oxide (EtO) sterilization. The amounts of amide N-chloramine structures before and after the sterilization were quantified to indicate the stabilities of these amide N-chloramine structures to the sterilization. The samples after sterilization were challenged with a clinical isolate of healthcare-associated multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli. N-Chloramine structure converted from polymethacrylamide (dressing 2) had the highest durability (89.7% retained active chlorine) toward EtO sterilization; that from hydantoin (dressing 3; 86.3% retained active chlorine) followed; and poly(N-chloroacrylamide) (dressing 1) had the lowest (64.0% retained active chlorine). After EtO sterilization, all the samples still reduced E. coli presence at 5 minutes of contact, with dressing 2 retaining a log 6 reduction. The three tested amide N-chloramine structures could all survive EtO sterilization while retaining percentages of active chlorine ranging from 64.0 to 89.7%. Dressing 2 showed the best durability, whereas dressing 1 had the poorest durability. With the remaining amounts of amide N-chloramine structures after EtO sterilization, all the dressings could still reduce E. coli numbers within 5 minutes of contact, and dressing 2 resulted in a log 6 reduction in colony count.

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a life-threatening infectious disease whose incidence has been on the rise. Commonly a consequence of group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus infection, it results in high levels of morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis is difficult and treatment involves emergent surgical intervention and antibiotic therapy. The aim of this study is to examine the incidence of NF in Manitoba with the goal of observing whether there is a geographic variation in incidence and outcomes based on Regional Health Authorities (RHAs). This is a 6-year retrospective chart review of all NF patients who presented to the Health Sciences Center from 2004 to 2009. A total of 130 patients satisfied the inclusion criteria. The mean age was 47 ± 16 years. The most common comorbidities were diabetes (33.8%) and hypertension (33.1%). The overall mortality was 13.1% with advanced age being an independent risk factor (P < .05). Lower extremity was the most common location of infection (44.6%) and the most common causative organism was group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus (63.9%). The type of infection (mono- vs. polymicrobial) was not found to affect length of stay, amputation rate, or mortality. There was no statistical difference in rate of amputations, length of stay, or mortality based on RHA. Incidence within the province, however, varied significantly based on RHA and ethnicity (P < .05). We determined that regardless of origin before admission, all our patients have equivalent prognosis. Burntwood RHA was found to have substantially higher incidence than the rest of the province, and higher incidence was established among the Aboriginal population.

The purpose of this study is to determine the lowest concentration of subcutaneous phenylephrine (neosynephrine) required for effective vasoconstriction in skin graft donor sites. Surgery for burn injury is associated with blood loss. Tourniquet use and tumescence with epinephrine have decreased blood loss. However, absorption of epinephrine has been reported with systemic effects. Phenylephrine, an α1-adrenergic receptor agonist, has vasoconstrictive properties similar to epinephrine's without other α-adrenergic or β-adrenergic activity. The aim of this study is to determine the lowest effective concentration of phenylephrine that will provide vasoconstriction in split-thickness graft donor sites. By using intensive care unit equivalency tables, the authors estimated a concentration of phenylephrine on the basis of current epinephrine tumescence. This concentration was titrated up or down according to an algorithm established a priori, determining the minimum concentration that achieved vasoconstriction in three consecutive patients. The primary outcome was local vasoconstriction. Secondary outcomes measured were pre-, intra-, and postoperative mean arterial pressure, systolic pressure and heart rate, graft take, and donor site healing. The subjects were six otherwise healthy adult patients (five men and one woman) with a mean age of 36 years. The average TBSA was 737.5 cm². Vasoconstriction was achieved at 5 μg/ml. No significant alterations in hemodynamic measures were observed. The optimal concentration of phenylephrine for prevention of bleeding in donor sites appears to be 5 μg/ml. Participants will be able to identify the effects of phenylephrine and epinephrine tumescence. They will also identify the concentration at which phenylephrine will be effective in donor sites.

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a well-recognized complication of burn injury that can result in significantly compromised limb function. The etiology and optimal treatment strategy for HO remain elusive. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between delay in elbow wound closure and the development of HO. We performed a case-control study to examine the relationship between delay in wound closure and development of HO. Cases (HO patients) were identified using our patient registry and matched with patients of similar age, burn size, and sex who did not develop HO. Time to wound closure was compared using bivariate statistics and the odds for developing HO based on time to wound closure was modeled using multivariate logistic regression. During the study period, a total of 45 patients developed elbow HO. When compared with controls matched for age, burn size, and sex, elbow wounds were open significantly longer in the cases than in the controls (48.7 days vs 24.2 days, P < .01). On multivariate logistic regression, the adjusted odds ratio was 1.08 (95% CI 1.04-1.12, P < .01). Time to elbow wound closure significantly impacts the risk of development of heterotopic ossification. Therefore, to minimize risk of HO formation, increased attention is warranted to optimize time to wound closure over joints. In addition, consideration of other soft tissue coverage options such as local flaps, including fascia or muscle flaps, may be warranted in cases of very deep elbow buns with high risk of skin graft failure.