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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Walking activity in persons with Parkinson disease (PD) is important for preventing functional decline. The contribution of walking activity to home and community mobility in PD is poorly understood. METHODS Cross-sectional baseline data (N = 69) were analyzed from a randomized controlled PD trial. The Life-Space Assessment (LSA) quantified the extent, frequency, and independence across 5 expanding levels of home and community mobility, producing individual subscores and a total score. Two additional summed scores were used to represent mobility within (Levels 1-3) and beyond (Levels 4-5) neighborhood limits. An accelerometer measured walking activity for 7 days. Regression and correlation analyses evaluated relationships between daily steps and mobility scores. Mann-Whitney U tests secondarily compared differences in mobility scores between the active and sedentary groups. RESULTS Walking activity contributed significantly to the summed Level 1-3 score (β = 0.001, P = 0.004) but not to the summed Level 4-5 (β = 0.001, P = 0.33) or total (β = 0.002, P = 0.07) scores. Walking activity was significantly related to Level 1 (ρ = 0.336, P = 0.005), Level 2 (ρ = 0.307, P = 0.010), and Level 3 (ρ = 0.314, P = 0.009) subscores. Only the summed Level 1-3 score (P = 0.030) was significantly different between the active and sedentary groups. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Persons with PD who demonstrated greater mobility beyond the neighborhood were not necessarily more active; walking activity contributed more so to home and neighborhood mobility. Compared with LSA total score, the Level 1-3 summed score may be a more useful participation-level measure for assessing the impact of changes in walking activity.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1 available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A349).

Background and purpose Previously, we showed that internal cues (such as singing) produce similar motor benefits as external cues (such as listening to music) for people with Parkinson disease (PD). This study takes that research further by exploring how singing-either aloud or mentally-at different tempos can ameliorate gait, and it offers insight into how internal cueing techniques may enhance motor performance for older adults and people with PD. Methods Sixty participants aged 50 years and older (30 female) were recruited; 30 had PD and 30 were healthy age-matched controls. Participants completed walking trials involving internal and external cueing techniques at 90%, 100%, and 110% of preferred cadence. The effects of different cue types and rates were assessed in a repeated-measures cross-sectional study by comparing gait characteristics (velocity, cadence, stride length) and variabilities (coefficients of variation of stride length, stride time, single support time). Results All participants modified their cadence and stride length during cued conditions, resulting in changes in gait velocity closely reflecting expected changes based upon cue rate. External cues resulted in increased gait variability, whereas internal cues decreased gait variability relative to uncued walking. Variability decreases were more substantial during mental singing at tempos at or above preferred cadence. Discussion and conclusions Matching movement to one's own voice improves gait characteristics while reducing gait variability for older adults and people with PD. Optimizing the use of internal cues to facilitate movement is an important step toward more effectively meeting the needs of people with gait disorders related to aging or neurological disease.Video Abstract available for more insights from authors (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A286).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The Maximum Step Length Test (MSLT), a measure of one's capacity to produce a large step, has been studied in older adults, but not in people with Parkinson disease (PD). We characterized performance and construct validity of the MSLT in PD. METHODS Forty participants (mean age: 65.12 ± 8.20 years; 45% female) with idiopathic PD completed the MSLT while "OFF" and "ON" anti-PD medication. Construct validity was investigated by examining relationships between MSLT and measures of motor performance. The following measures were collected: Mini-Balance Evaluation Systems Test (Mini-BESTest), Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale, gait velocity, 6-minute walk test (6MWT), Movement Disorder Society-Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale subsection III (MDS-UPDRS III), and Timed Up and Go (TUG) test. A repeated-measures analysis of variance tested for main effects of medication and stepping direction and the interaction between the 2. Pearson or Spearman correlations were used to assess the relationships between MSLT and motor performance measures (α = 0.05). RESULTS Regardless of medication status, participants stepped further in the forward direction compared with the backward and lateral directions (P < 0.001). Participants increased MSLT performance when ON-medication compared with OFF-medication (P = 0.004). Regardless of medication status, MSLT was moderately to strongly related to Mini-BESTest, TUG, and 6MWT. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS People with PD stepped furthest in the forward direction when performing the MSLT. Increased MSLT performance was observed in the ON-medication state compared with OFF-medication; however, the small increase may not be clinically meaningful. Given the relationships between the MSLT and the Mini-BESTest, 6MWT, and TUG, MSLT performance appears to be associated with balance and gait hypokinesia in people with PD.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A186).

Background and purpose The Four Square Step Test (4SST), a quick and simple test of multidirectional stepping, may be useful in predicting falls in people with Parkinson disease (PD). We studied the reliability of the 4SST and its ability to discriminate between freezers and nonfreezers, between fallers and nonfallers, and factors predictive of 4SST performance in people with PD. Methods Fifty-three individuals with idiopathic PD completed the full protocol, including the 4SST as well as measures of balance, walking, and disease severity on anti-PD medication. Results Interrater (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.99) and test-retest reliability were high (ICC = 0.78). The median 4SST performance was 9.52 seconds. There was a significant difference between 4SST time on-medication versus off (P = 0.03), while differences between fallers and nonfallers (P = 0.06) and between freezers and nonfreezers (P = 0.08) did not reach significance. All outcome measures were significantly related to 4SST time. In an exploratory, simultaneous regression analysis, 56% of the variance in 4SST performance could be accounted for by 3 measures: Mini-Balance Evaluation Systems Test (Mini-BESTest), Five Time Sit to Stand, and Nine Hole Peg Test. The 4SST cutoff score for distinguishing fallers from nonfallers was 9.68 seconds (Area under curve = 0.65, sensitivity = 0.73, specificity = 0.57). The posttest probability of an individual with a score greater than the cutoff being a faller was 31% (pretest probability = 21%). Discussion and conclusions The 4SST is a reliable, quick test that can distinguish between on-and off-medication conditions in PD but is not as good as other tests (eg, Mini-BESTest) for distinguishing between fallers and nonfallers. Video Abstract available (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A31) for more insights from the authors.

Background and purpose Pegboard tests of hand dexterity are commonly used in clinical settings to assess upper extremity function in various populations. For individuals with Parkinson disease (PD), the clinical utility of pegboard tests has not been fully evaluated. Our purpose was to examine the commercially available 9-Hole Peg Test (9HPT) using a large sample of individuals with PD to determine average values, test-retest reliability, and factors predictive of 9HPT performance. Methods A total of 262 participants with PD (67% men, Hoehn & Yahr stage = 2.3 ± 0.7) completed the 9HPT along with a battery of other tests including the Movement Disorder Society Unified PD Rating Scale-Motor Subscale III and Freezing of Gait Questionnaire. Results Average time to complete the 9HPT was 31.4 ± 15.7 s with the dominant and 32.2 ± 12.4 s with the nondominant hand. Test-retest reliability of 2 trials performed with the same hand was high (dominant ICC2,1 = 0.88, nondominant ICC2,1 = 0.91). Women performed the test significantly faster than men, and nonfreezers significantly faster than freezers. For either hand, age, bradykinesia, and freezing of gait scores individually predicted significant portions of the variance in 9HPT time. Sex also was a significant predictor, but for the nondominant hand only. Tremor and rigidity did not predict performance. Discussion and conclusions The 9HPT appears to be a clinically useful measure for assessing upper extremity function in individuals with PD. The 9HPT has advantages over previously used methods including standardization, known normative values for healthy controls, commercial availability, transportability, and ease of administration.

Background and Purpose. The physical therapy profession has, in the past decade, placed increasing emphasis on the importance of evidence-based practice. More physical therapists are pursuing nonclinical doctoral degrees, such as PhDs, in an effort to obtain the skills necessary to conduct original research and add to the foundation of literature upon which we base our practice. In 2002, the number of American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) members reporting a nonclinical doctorate as their highest earned degree was 30% higher than in 1996 (Sarah Miller, APTA Archives, oral communication, March 2003). Despite this increasing trend toward and emphasis on nonclinical doctoral training of physical therapist researchers, there has not been a concomitant statement from the profession regarding the importance of postdoctoral study for these individuals. The purpose of this paper is to advocate for recognition of the importance of postdoctoral studies to physical therapy. Position and Rationale. As more physical therapists pursue research doctorates and the standards for rehabilitation research become more stringent, the postdoctoral fellowship should become the accepted and expected next step in the careers of these individuals. The vital role of postdoctoral training in the preparation of independent researchers has long been recognized in other fields. The time has come for individuals, institutions, and professional organizations in the physical therapy community to recognize how important postdoctoral studies are in the careers of research scientists and respond accordingly. Recommendations and Conclusion. Postdoctoral training for physical therapists (PTs) is currently undervalued. To remedy this situation, the following actions are recommended: (1) changing expectations in the job market, with institutions requiring or at least recommending postdoctoral training among applicants for research-oriented tenure-track faculty positions, (2) acknowledgement of postdoctoral training by professional organizations through the addition of postdoctoral training as a level of education in member surveys used by APTA and accreditation surveys used by the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education (CAPTE), and (3) enhancing graduate student access to information on how and why to pursue postdoctoral training. Keywords: Postdoctoral training, Postdoctoral fellow. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE In the past decade, the physical therapy profession has placed increasing emphasis on the importance of evidence-based practice. Many professional (entry-level) physical therapy degree programs now offer a clinical doctorate in physical therapy in an effort to provide clinicians with the tools they need to effectively use available evidence. At the same time, more physical therapists are pursuing nonclinical doctoral degrees, such as PhDs, in an effort to obtain the skills necessary to conduct original research and add to the foundation of literature upon which we base our practice. In 2002, the number of American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) members reporting a nonclinical doctorate as their highest earned degree was 30% higher than in 1996 (APTA Archives, oral communication, March 2003). Despite this increasing trend toward and emphasis on nonclinical doctoral training of physical therapist researchers, there has not been a concomitant statement from the profession regarding the importance of postdoctoral study for these individuals. The purpose of this paper is to advocate for placing increased importance on postdoctoral studies in the training of independent, funded researchers in the profession of physical therapy. Additionally, we recommend ways that the physical therapy profession can encourage individuals to pursue study beyond the PhD. Postdoctoral Fellowships: History and Current Status What is a postdoctoral fellowship and why is it important? The first part of this question has been answered by the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB),1 which defines a postdoctoral fellowship as noted in Table 1. …