Search

Supplement This report documents the results from an analysis of policy measures to reduce losses of nitrogen, phosphorus and soil from the agricultural sector to the environment. These kinds of losses are nonpoint, and standard emission oriented policy measures like effluent taxes are prohibitively costly to use. The policy altematives are therefore to regulate the input of potentially polluting substances - in this case reduce the use of fertilizers, to prescribe changes in agronomic practices as conducted on the farm or to change product prices. Principally this study analyzes the effects of these types of regulations, their ability to reduce losses of nutrients and soil, and the private and social costs thereby invoked.

Individual efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gasses could have a significant impact on climate change if enough people choose to act together. When it comes to traveling however, people seem to find excuses to travel by plane disregarding their concern for the climate. This thesis aims to understand the underlying principles of Norwegians’ climate concerns when traveling by plane, and if the Covid-19 pandemic is a catalyst for changing these concerns. A mixed-methods approach involving in-depth interviews including a quantitative assessment of core values of 22 Norwegians, is used to explore the following two research questions: In what way do individual climate concerns of flight travel vary based on the perceived role they inhabit? and Has the Covid-19 pandemic impacted individuals' motivations and climate concerns of traveling by plane? Three main purposes of travel were identified as leisure, visits, and business, all of which encompass different roles. Roles exist in social settings with expectations and responsibilities connected to them. When not fulfilling these requirements, sanctions are used to steer behavior. Acting according to social norms may contradict individuals' own values and create a gap between their attitudes and behavior. In order to examine the function of roles’ impact on climate concern when traveling, an archetype analysis was conducted following the interviews based on their level of climate concern and actual behavior. Participants were categorized into five groups: the Climate Activist, the Optimist, the Average Joe, the Free rider, and the Climate Denier. The groups differed when arguing which purpose is justifiable for flying, and the requirements attached to roles were found as a frequent excuse. The Climate Activists found all non-essential travel to be illegitimate reasons to travel by plane. The Optimists were more open to travel for leisure, however, aspired to travel in more climate-friendly ways. On the other hand, the Average Joes were more willing to sacrifice work-related trips and valued leisure as a necessity. Furthermore, the Free riders did not feel the need to give excuses for their trips and would rather compensate for the climate in other ways. Lastly, the Climate Deniers did not express any climate concerns regardless of the purpose of the trip. These trends aligned with the quantitative results from the values questionnaire from the ACT project. Using the pandemic as a catalyst for institutional change, in the form of norm emergence, could indicate a potential for lasting change in climate concern. There has been a significant change in travel patterns, both with more domestic destinations for leisure and in the business sector where new habits and norms have already emerged. Nevertheless, leisure travel and visitations are predicted to rebound when the pandemic is over. Thus, the positive climate impact of reduced flights was an unintentional advantage of the pandemic, rather than caused by increased awareness of climate change. M-IES

This thesis explores the issue of non-participation among young Norwegians in collective actions with a climate cause. The aim is to investigate whether there are any common features between the non-participants in terms of individual and social characteristics as well as the reasons they give for not taking part in collective actions. With this objective in mind, two research questions were formulated: 1.) Are there any common individual characteristics and social contexts that the non-participatory youth share that may explain their lack of participation? 2.) How do young people who do not engage in climate activism reflect on their non-participation in collective actions against climate change? A qualitative research strategy was used, and individual in-depth interviews were set as the main data collection method. The sample consisted of 19 young people between the ages of 18-29 who study at the two largest universities in Oslo, UiO and OsloMet. This thesis applies a modified social-psychological framework, with contributions from sociology and social movement theory, that could help explain the process of non-participation. Using this, it finds that the environmental values among non-participants play a key role in how they relate to climate change and their feelings of responsibility within it. Furthermore, this influences their behavior in terms of participation in other climate related activities than collective actions. While the non-participation of respondents with lower environmental orientation could be justified by their value set, this thesis raises the question of why respondents with high environmental values chose not to participate in collective actions. It finds that these respondents either question their own personal suitability or the political implications of participation in collective actions. Key words: non-participation, young people, collective actions, climate change, social-psychology, powerless hypothesis, delegation hypothesis. M-DS

In acknowledgement of the dire need for comprehensive global action and societal transformation, states have come together in formulation of several International Environmental Agreements (IEAs) outlining goals and commitments to tackle climate change and ecological collapse. Achieving these goals often entail prematurely downscaling industries and sectors with large ecological footprint, such as the fossil fuel sector. It is however important to recognize that a variety of foreign investments are protected in a majority of today’s International Investment Agreements (IIAs), through provisions granting access to the so-called Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) mechanism. ISDS allows foreign investors to sue states based on policies conflicting with their investments and seek high monetary compensation for potential economic losses. Thus, ISDS is increasingly seen as hindrance to states’ efforts of environmental policymaking, and it is suggested that it may have a chilling effect discouraging states from adopting environmental policies, due to the risk of having to pay investors millions in compensation. States are already being sued for adopting phase-out policies necessary for achieving IEAs, and similar cases are likely to increase in numbers as stronger environmental policies are paramount. With this backdrop, this thesis examines six ISDS cases with varying status (settled, decided, pending and threat of arbitration), by analyzing what the experiences from these cases may tell us with regards to countries’ efforts to form national environmental policies, and address the possible impacts ISDS may have on states achieving IEAs. The Environmental Governance Systems (EGS) framework (Vatn, 2015) is applied as to investigate the governance structure of ISDS and used to structure the analysis of power dynamics between the actors and institutions involved. Findings show that through access to ISDS, IIAs contributes to strengthen foreign investor’s relative power over states, and that ISDS may have a chilling effect on states environmental policymaking which also may shrink their regulatory capacities. Furthermore, states may experience a conflict of interests with regards to addressing strong civil society demands, their commitments to provide a healthy environment, and their obligations in the IIAs. Thus, the study suggests that states will continue to introduce environmental policies in the future, but these are likely to be challenged by investors seeking to recoup their financial losses. The risk is reduced effectiveness of such policies and the prospects of achieving IEAs in time will be significantly reduced as long as foreign investors have the right challenge legitimate environmental policies. It may therefore be hypothesized whether the ISDS system is creating structural barriers for the realization of environmental justice. M-IES

Food systems are pressing the environment in multiple ways. Moreover, some of these pressures are due to inefficient resource use. It is estimated that as much as one third of all food being produced globally is lost or wasted. One of the most wasted food categories globally is fresh fruit and vegetables. In order to avoid the crossing of planetary boundaries, scientific and political communities have signaled the urgent need to change current practices in the global food system. As a response to this, the concept of circular economy is increasingly being recognized as a possible approach to create more sustainable food systems. However, there is a need for more knowledge on barriers and drivers to a circular economy transition, in order to move from theory to practice. With the aim of contributing to such knowledge, this study investigates the barriers and drivers to a transition to a circular economy for vegetables in the Norwegian food system. Through a qualitative case study, perspectives from leaders in businesses working in the various components of the value chain for vegetables have been collected and analyzed. The study takes on a systems perspective and holds the ambition of gaining a greater understanding of how the barriers and drivers are relevant and manifested across the value chain, as well as how these factors are connected to other actors, institutions, and spheres in the greater system. The findings of this study indicate that central barriers are: hindering regulations; lack of political incentives and economic risk; the size and standardization of economic processes; consumer preferences; the conflict between vegetables and supporting resources; knowledge gaps and lack of awareness; lack of holistic thinking and collaboration; lack of willingness to change; and power structures in the value chain. Furthermore, the identified drivers are: increased knowledge and awareness; circular approaches are becoming profitable; political responsibility, incentives, and guidelines; collaboration and holistic thinking; new technologies; and strategic division of power. Thus, the drivers are both direct responses to the perceived barriers, or separate factors seen to enable circular initiatives. Moreover, this study finds that many of the identified factors affecting a transition to a circular economy for vegetables are interlinked, overlapping and dependent on each other. This should be taken into consideration when creating measures aimed at facilitating a transition to a circular economy for vegetables in the Norwegian food system. M-IES

The present ecological crises call for fundamental transformations of capitalist society. However, these calls seem to not include the transformation of labour as a social structure, only its technical aspects. To rectify this lack, this thesis contributes to developing a critique of labour and its mechanisms as a social relation from an ecological standpoint. This thesis investigates this question along three lines: first, the question of which aspects of labour drive ecological impact, and what drives aspects. Second, it considers the limits of policy approaches that do not change qualitatively labour itself. Third, it discusses the political implications from the preceding analysis. The approach is theoretical and uses existing literature to develop its arguments. To build an understanding of labour and its impacts, I primarily use the one extant publication on this topic, that of Maja Hoffmann and Roland Paulsen, and give a revised version of their four factors of labour’s ecological impact – the time, scale, income and work-induced infrastructure and mobility factors. To better explain why these factors happen and propagate, I introduce Moishe Postone’s Marxist understanding of labour and value to show that as labour constitutes value, the dominant form of wealth, labour is driven by the a-ecological logic of value, and results in and drives the aforementioned factors. The discussion of two current policy approaches, work time reduction and universal basic income, finds that as long as they only change labour’s quantities, such as the length of the working day, as opposed to its qualities, they can only temporarily lessen the impacts of labour. These approaches do not remove the dynamics of value and the aforementioned factors from labour. Regarding political implications, the overall conclusion is that the abolition of labour is a necessary condition for sustainability, and that human productive activities should be organised in a different manner. The why and how production must change – the metabolism of humans and nature must be actively regulated, and production must happen for specific goals and not value. Production should conform to ecological rhythms, not uniform and abstract time norms. Productivity improvements should not be to the detriment of ecological integrity. Productive activity should not be subject to the wages system or something like it, wherein participation in production is necessary to gain the means of subsistence. These qualitative social changes must happen with and not instead of changes in technical aspects and the quantitative level of production. M-IES

Over the last years Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs) have gained attention as a solution to lower CO2 emissions from aviation, a sector difficult to electrify that contributes to a large extent to global CO2 emissions, and is expected to grow in the future years. A new European consortium based in Norway, Norsk e-Fuel, presented its project on sustainable fuels. The project aims to industrialize a hydrogen based e-fuel, generated from CO2 and water, using Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU), electrolysis, and Norwegian renewable energy. CCU, as well as many new technological solutions, comes with challenges and uncertainties that hinder their deployment and governance, constantly pushing for institutional changes. This thesis uses Norsk e-Fuel as a case study, and Institutional economics theory to analyze the environmental governance system framework around the implementation of CCU and e-fuels in Norway. Additionally, it looks to identify the uncertainties and challenges for their development and how these and actors from the governance structure push the dynamics of institutional change and influence their implementation. Results showed Norway has a robust environmental governance structure that, together with an international framework, has a lot of influence on the implementation of e-fuels and the CCU value chain. The research identified several challenges and uncertainties for their development and implementation. These challenges have been actively discussed by the main actors involved. The discussions have shown a dynamic action within the national and international governance structure to have clearer policy instruments to implement or refute CCU and e-fuels. Today, a new regulatory framework from the EU that contains relevant instruments for implementing CCU and e-fuels is about to be adopted. However, the results identified some limitations in Norway to adopt new EU regulations, like slow processes and apprehensiveness from the institutions setting the rules to implement new regulations. Regardless of these limitations, institutional change is constantly happening within the actors in the governance structure, and the findings show that the influence they have to implement new solutions has a lot of weight. M-IES

Conservation protects species by regulating human use of areas. As humans are regulated, conflicts occur over the balance between sustainable use and conservation. In 2015, the Norwegian government announced a new branding strategy to improve conserved areas’ abilities to provide income for locals while protecting the nature. The managers of conserved areas should create their own visitation strategy. Rondane and Forollhogna national parks have their own visitation strategies, but these visitation strategies are different, as Rondanes visitation strategy focuses on activities within the national park, while Forollhognas visitation strategy focuses on activities in the border area. This thesis aimed to understand why these visitation strategies are different and how well these visitation strategies facilitate cooperation between actors. The actors examined were reindeer, local communities, tourist businesses, and farmers. I used discourse and legitimacy theories to systematize and understand the local interests and the creation processes of the visitation strategies. Furthermore, I used these theories to examine how well these visitation strategies facilitate cooperation between actors. After reading documents from both national parks, and interviewing 32 people, results show that local communities and farmers had similar interests across both national parks. However, while the tourist business in Rondane had interests within the national park, Forollhogna’s tourist businesses had interests in the border area. Since Rondane has a larger number of tourists within the national park, their reindeer situation is more pressing than in Forollhogna. Furthermore, the creation processes were different, where Rondane included a small group of actors, while Forollhogna’s national park board included locals in shaping the visitation strategy. The studies shows both interests and decision-making processes affected visitation strategies. But furthermore, the national parks characteristics shaped the reindeer situation and tourist businesses. Actors used to cooperate in Rondane, but not today. Forollhogna facilitates cooperation between actors by embracing locals as managers of their conserved area, they also draw tourism to the border area. I conclude Rondane national park board should re-establish cooperation as they once had, and/or strive for cooperation like in Forollhogna. Cooperation can both improve the national park’s ability to protect conservation values, while mitigating the negative consequences conserved areas can have on locals. M-IES

While global warming is accelerating, we are still far from a solution to climate change. The media plays a key role in engaging the public in order to motivate a transformation towards a future low emission society. This study aims to support CICERO Center for International Climate Research and their research project ACT in understanding how the meaning-making of climate change go about. It touches upon how young people acquire and engage with information about climate change, both in terms of their choice of sources and platforms. In addition, it goes more in-depth into human motivation. The thesis investigates whether climate change journalism can motivate altruistic or pro-environmental behavior among young people. More specifically, what type of reactions, reflections and rationalities that are evoked by a set of articles. The research has a mixed methods approach, where semi-structured in-depth interviews was the main method of data collection. 18 respondents, with an equal representation of gender, participated. These were between 18-29 years old. The analytical framework of the thesis consists of social representation theory, norm activation theory and institutional theory. A total of six journalistic texts were chosen for the quasi-experimental study, which all represented various social representation mechanisms such as emotional anchoring and objectification through personification. The findings suggests that certain mechanisms such as emotional anchoring and anchoring through metaphors have the potential to evoke altruistic reflections among young people. This is so as the articles are able to both increase the awareness of consequences and lead to ascription of responsibility. The same goes for the articles that were linked to habits, which indicates that young people prefer information about everyday action and behavior related to climate change. The remaining articles seem to only increase awareness, but are not able to evoke an ascription of responsibility. Because the materials of the experiment interacts with the participants existing knowledge, norms, and so on, it is useful to think of their reflections as emergent properties. It means that the sum consists of several parts, where each of these affects each other. Therefore, each article provide different results. M-IES

Over the past decade, biochar has been proposed as a solution to climate change in the agricultural sector because of its potential to sequester carbon. Although there is evidently interest from both farmers and the Norwegian government, there is to date no implemented biochar policy in Norway that grants farmers payment for carbon storage. This thesis utilises John W. Kingdon's (2014) theory of Multiple Streams Framework to analyse what is required to adopt and implement the biochar policy proposal as a climate measure in Norwegian agriculture. The thesis argue that in an ongoing policy process to implement new climate measures in the agricultural sector a window of opportunity is opening to adopt a biochar policy proposal from 2021, when the agricultural sector will reduce emissions towards their emission reduction target in 2030. The chances for adopting a biochar policy may increase if a number of identified challenges are managed and transformed into a feasible policy design that is ready for implementation. However, results from this study indicate an overall complexity that constrains the ability of involved actors to manage the challenges and coordinate the biochar policy proposal towards implementation. Moreover, the presence of leadership that could steer the policy process may enhance the success of the biochar policy proposal. M-IES

The clothing industry today is described as one of the most environmental pollution industries, and concern regards mass-consumption is rising on the global agenda. In the last years, second-hand clothes and products have been receiving more attention and demands, and in line with this demand, ethical and sustainable consumption has also increased. The aim of this study was to contribute to the understanding of consumers motivation and rationalization towards second-hand clothing and the clothing industry. This study is using a qualitative research method to explore these motivations among second-hand consumers in Oslo, Norway. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews with consumers of second-hand clothes as well as workers within second-hand markets. Both theories within the economic discipline, social science and social phycology were used to interoperate the findings and to understand drivers behind human consumption. There are various drivers of motivation for second-hand consumption. Empirical findings from this study show that reuse of products in consideration of environmental and social aspects where the highest drive for purchasing second-hand clothes. Also, economic motivations of making a “good deal” and motivation in regards to the personal style were finding from this study. M-IES

Climate change is the greatest environmental problem of our time, which is exponential in rate and globally significant in magnitude. There is scientific consensus that the current and abrupt changes in the climate are extremely likely to be driven by greenhouse gas emitting activities and human behaviors. Reduction of greenhouse gases demands therefore large attitudinal and behavioral changes among individuals across the whole globe. Furthermore, this study takes place in a Norwegian context and will discuss rural people’s attitudinal and behavioral responses to climate change. Today, there is not much research about this topic in a rural context, but there are indications that rural people may be less concerned about climate change and less willing to contribute to reduce their emissions, which I will investigate further. Moreover, this thesis aims to answer the questions: 1. What are the major differences between rural and urban communities in Norway, in terms of climate-related attitudes and actions? 2. How do the locals in Ål municipality perceive and act regarding climate change? 3. What role does people’s identity play for how they think and act considering climate change? By exploring these questions, my research strategy is to conduct a case study of a rural community in Hallingdal, where I use mixed methods to collect and analyze the data. I use quantitative research in terms of statistical analysis of primary data of CICERO’s survey to answer RQ1 and qualitative research in terms of in-depth interviews to investigate the climate-related perceptions, attitudes and actions among the locals in Ål, in order to answer RQs 2 and 3. I recognize that the findings cannot be generalized to other cases or populations, but it can provide a better understanding of how rural people think and act considering climate change. The results show that rural people are less concerned about climate change compared to urban people. However, the majority of the respondents in Ål believe in anthropogenic climate change and endorse biospheric values, but this study shows a tendency to a more climate-negative youth (18-29 years) compared to people between 45-59 years. Besides, the locals are dependent on the car and lack access to public transportation, which is the same tendency at a national level. Holiday trips have a big importance to the majority, but many also feel a discomfort when they travel with plane. Several of them do not eat meat or have reduced their meat consumption, but in general, meat is an integral part of the village’s food culture and social culture. In addition, their identities seem to play an influencing role in several ways, such as how person identity influences what decisions they make regarding electric car purchases or flight travels, or how social and role identities affect how they view meat production and plantbased products. M-IES

New forms of consumption may be required due to increasing environmental degradation. One of the suggested solutions is to challenge individual ownership by participating in the relatively new sharing economy. The objective of this study has been to explore motivations among consumers in Norway who share physical assets with other consumers on a temporary basis through sharing schemes. This objective was specified into the following research questions: What motivates sharing behavior? What characterizes the values and personal capabilities among consumers who share physical assets in sharing schemes? How do consumers who share physical assets in sharing schemes experience the role of contextual factors? To answer the research questions, a qualitative research method was employed. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews among 18 respondents who either had rented or rented out physical assets through the sharing scheme Leieting in Norway. The results showed that motivations to share are not a uniform phenomenon. They vary in content, number, type of rationality, between transactional roles and may change over time. A key finding is that motivations of consumers who rent assets are largely based on individual rationality, whereas motivations of consumers who rent out assets frequently include both social and individual rationality. Furthermore, the values among consumers who share physical assets seem to be largely characterized by ‘self-transcendence’ and ‘openness to change’, whilst their socio-economic characteristics vary. Their personal capabilities in the form of technical and social skills required for participation can for the most part be characterized as sufficient. In general, consumers seem to experience the role of contextual factors in the form of technological design and safety as respectively satisfying and important. Regarding the physical difficulty of sharing, the results indicated that consumers who rent physical assets experience reduced time and effort required as a facilitating aspect, whereas regarding consumers who rented out, it was indicated that experience of rental administration were associated to specific types of motivation. The results did furthermore lead to the suggestion that social proof may be of importance for individuals to start renting out physical assets, and that norms within established groups may transcend out of the groups towards sharing schemes. Finally, tax did not seem to be experienced as important for the participation of the respondents who rented out assets. M-IES

As a means to e.g. reduce GHG emissions, air pollution, and noise, The City Council of Oslo, in line with national-level climate goals, has introduced restrictive car policies through their Climate and Energy Strategy. Those reviewed here are the car-free city center and environmentally- and time differentiated tolls. The aim is to understand attitudes towards these restrictive policies (with an emphasis on tolls); more specifically to explore factors considered to influence attitudes. Tolls have received much attention in the national media, with a particular focus on families with children as being those who would suffer greatly. Given this, the paper is foremost aimed at understanding attitudes amongst residents of Oslo who have (young) children. Secondly, considering the climate and environmental rationales behind the policies, there is a focus on related institutions (conventions and norms). Being a part of the research project ACT at CICERO Center for International Climate Research, an adapted theoretical framework from this project is employed. This framework is built mainly on theories from social psychology and institutional theory. Through 24 semi-structured interviews, this framework is used to identify themes of analysis, while seeking to maintain openness to interviewees’ perspectives. Findings suggest that several factors may have an influence on attitudes and that the picture is complex. However, some key areas arose: the place of residence, commuting behavior and affectedness of tolls, concern about outcome equity and climate change, environmental norms (or lack thereof), and attitudes in social circle regarding tolls and climate change. Further, those who are positive have younger and more children than do those negative and do not recognize themselves as victims, unlike what one would expect from media coverage on the topic. Overall, the field of action embedding everyday travel behavior does not appear to be institutionalized regarding its environmental impact. This suggests that clear communication concerning the environmental implications of fossil-fueled vehicles is necessary and that norms involving this type of behavior must be further developed in order to achieve emission reduction goals. The influence of lifestyles and cultures revolving these, and the distributional effects of the policies are recognized as important areas of further research and dissemination. M-IES

In this study I have explored to value-behaviour gap of young people (18-29 years) living in Oslo and Akershus (Norway). The intend was to understand the whether those who perform more climate-friendly behaviour have different values from those who do perform less such actions. I also wanted to discover the barriers of climate-friendly behaviour and how the norms and actions of friends and family influence one’s personal actions. This was done through a quantitative research where I interviewed twenty participants. The framework used to analyse barriers was based on barriers identified by Blake (1999). The study has also elements of quantitative research. Values were quantified through Schwartz’ value orientations (2007). The participants were divided into three categories based the actions they performed to reduce their carbon footprint. I found that participants who perform the least amount (classification I) have the least values within the self-transcendence orientation. They also have less friends and family that perform environmentally friendly behaviour. The biggest barrier identified was, however also the influence of friends and family, especially in regard to meat consumption and air flights.

This thesis is a comparative study that examines how the policy of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) was implemented in three pilot sites located in Kilosa and Kondoa districts in Tanzania and the RDS Rio Negro in Amazonas, Brazil. Applying classical institutional theory, the thesis analyses ‘what it takes’ to establish local governance structures for trading carbon under REDD+. The analyses cover REDD+ implementation from ‘start to finish’. The aim has been to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the establishment of REDD+, which included the processes of implementation, what it costed to establish and apply the relevant governance structures and what the outcomes have been regarding both livelihoods and deforestation/carbon storage. The study employs both qualitative and quantitative approaches, and has produced altogether four scientific papers. NORAD, Research Council of Norway, Schlumberger Foundation

This thesis will estimate the Willingness to Pay (WTP) for water infrastructure in the city of Huaraz - Peru. Huaraz is one of Peru’s most vulnerable city to Climate Change. The city lies under the largest concentration of tropical glaciers in Peru: The Cordillera Blanca. Melt water from the glaciers has contributed to an even water supply, and corresponding urban development. However, Climate Change is posed to reduce water supply. Once glacial melt water stops flowing, water infrastructure such as reservoirs and water tanks will have to compensate for the losses. A Choice Experiment helped to gauge Huaraz residents’ interest on these two alternatives. These results were controlled for Climate Change perception and agency. The results show that people have a strong predilection for reservoirs, being reservoirs the most familiar option in the past. In other words, urban planers need to invest in large infrastructure to adapt to Climate Change. In addition, interviews with water committees show that water fees are too low, and might be insufficient to fund infrastructure expansion. M-IES

Household consumption behaviours in the UK are contributing to the greenhouse gas emissions driving the climate crisis. Policies in the UK implement climate change mitigation efforts; however, these instruments are often unable to influence a behaviour change. This project aims to investigate the use of information as a policy instrument to encourage climate relevant behaviour on an individual level in the UK. The research will investigate barriers, impact and normative information disclosure, and communication within a group as potential influencing aspects for adopting climate relevant behaviour. The institutional theory, the norm activation theory, the functional theory, and the deliberative democratic theory will be used to understand the influence of these aspects. Focus groups were the main data collection method, along with a commitment strategy for participants to decide to adopt climate relevant behaviours. Four of the focus groups presented impact information and two of the focus groups presented both impact and normative information. Follow-up focus groups and questionnaires were used to assess participant experiences. In total, 25 participants took part in this investigation. All 25 participants committed to adopt climate relevant behaviours. The barriers identified and the perceptions of the information seem to be influenced by individual preferences, moral obligations to act promoted by personal norms, and preferences of other individuals. The majority of participants experienced barriers, the most significant being the social (family) barriers. Perceptions of the impact and normative information were mixed among participants. However, normative information was not perceived as confusing and seemed to be more engaging than the format of impact information. Communication within the group and the group setting itself seemed to have the most significant influence because of discussion and pressure within the group stimulating moral obligations and motivations to act. It is suggested that combining group communication with relatable normative information could form an appropriate policy instrument to encourage climate relevant behaviour on an individual level in the UK. M-IES

Women across the globe are limited by barrier-restricting opportunities for their self-development, the right over her body, control over her integrity, and access to her human rights. Addressing and undertaking women empowerment fosters their capabilities, enables development and social justice. The Barefoot College (BC), situated in Tilonia, Rajasthan, India, aims to empower women by training them as Solar-Panel Engineers (Barefoot Solar Engineers (BSE)) in the college’s International Solar Training (IST) Program. This thesis analyzes how the IST affects the BSEs’ empowerment in Jordan and in Tonga. In addition, it examines how the BSEs’ agency, and the structures and relations surrounding the BSEs are facilitating or limiting the BSEs’ empowerment process in Jordan and in Tonga. This qualitative research is based on six in-depth interviews; including two Jordanian BSEs, two Tongan BSE, one Jordanian Ground Partner, and one Tongan Ground Partner; five Jordanian interviews and four Tongan interviews with people involved with the IST program; and two Jordanian and nine Tongan key informants. These interviews permitted a broader analysis of the structures and relations that surround the BSEs; the BSEs’ agency; a base to examine how the IST Program was facilitated and carried out in Tonga and in Jordan; and an insight into how the respective IST Program affect the Jordanian and Tongan BSEs’ empowerment processes. The semi-structured interviews were carried out through an ethnographic approach and a conceptual approach. The Ethnographic approach provides space for program-based, communities’ and BSEs’ Perspectives and objectives. The conceptual framework that was used to analyze the results is based on CARE’s Women’s Empowerment Framework. The three Perspectives (i.e. program-based, community and women/BSEs’) and the two sites (i.e. Jordan and Tonga) of the study highlight the contextual importance of woman empowerment. This study found that the IST program had limited effects on women empowerment regarding economic independence and sustainability. However, the respective IST programs facilitated increased opportunities for income-work, mobility, skills attainment and augmented self-esteem, which have been of great importance to the BSEs’ empowerment process. M-DS

During the past decades, science has proven the effect of human made climate emissions on climate change. Human’s emissions of greenhouse gases cause a warmer and wilder climate worldwide. Thus, there is a broad, global consensus to reduce emissions to prevent further climate change. Several intergovernmental agreements have been made which aim for emission reduction, the latest is the 2015 Paris Agreement. In addition, a development of national climate acts is seen. The UK was a pioneer in this work and enacted their Climate Change Act in 2008. The Nordic countries followed suit, and Norway enacted their Climate Act in June 2017. Both national and international policies on climate have, however, suffered from the time-inconsistency problem, where long-term policies – which are needed to solve the climate issue – are neglected in favour of short-term policies, which can be conducted and give results within a shorter time. Thus, the climate policies need measures to avoid time-inconsistency and prioritise long-term policies and measures. My motivation for this thesis has been to understand why this time-inconsistency occurs and what can be done to avoid it. This thesis analyses the policy-making process of the Norwegian Climate Act. This includes an analysis of the actors involved and why the act was enacted at a specific time. The thesis also attempts to analyse whether the act is a good instrument for long-term planning and reduction of time-inconsistencies. The sources used are essentially official documents from the process of making the act, and interviews with persons involved in the process. The main findings are that the policy-making process involved actors from all sectors. Most actors supported an act, while especially the economic actors were less supportive and feared an act would reduce their competitiveness. Many of the politicians, including the Government, focused on a need for cost-effective measures, while the actors who supported the act wanted it to be more stringent. They argued to include measures to prevent time-inconsistency, such as climate budgets, an advisory committee on climate change and annual reports. The only measure included in the act is annual reports, and an aim to cooperate with the EU to achieve the goals for emission reduction. Thus, this reporting, and the political opposition, ENGOs and the medias ability to give it attention and focus – in addition to a need for an establishment of a norm on emission reduction – will be crucial for the goal achievement of the act. M-IES

This case study explored how the culture of the political actors of the Union of Cooperatives Tosepan Titataniske (Tosepan) in the region of the Northeastern Mountains of Puebla, Mexico, influence their social and environmental governance. Besides, it also assessed the strengths and the limits of such cultural influence to support the sustainability of the organization. This study applied a qualitative research approach in order to answer the research questions based on the analysis of the collected data from the political ecology and environmental theoretical approaches. The findings of this research indicated that there is a clear influence from 4 cultural features on Tosepan governance: 1. Identity, 2. Cooperation in community based interaction, 3. Indigenous political systems and 3. Their particular vision of nature. Moreover, the influence from these features has several impacts on the sustainability of the organization. The political actors’ identity with the indigenous movement defines Tosepan goals and explains the permanence of the organization. However, there was not enough data to state its limits on sustainability. Cooperation in community based interaction influence diverse social, political, economic and environmental actions of Tosepan governance in a positive way, and it is the most useful cultural resource to support sustainability. Nevertheless, it encounters fundamental limits in the wider political and economic contexts, which determines the preferences of most of the organization’s economic actors (the producers), and this hinders the outcomes of the most important agricultural management programs of Tosepan. Further, the traditional indigenous political system is formally incorporated into Tosepan governance at all levels, it is efficient and democratic, but at the local level of 9 municipalities. It has a limit to growth or expansion with the same level of efficiency into the entire region of 28 municipalities. Finally, the vision of nature of the political actors comes from diverse influences that they have incorporated into a perspective that strengthens biodiversity and conservation. Nevertheless, the dominant economic visions of nature from the local to the global level hinders the intensification of a sustainable agriculture in all producers. Moreover, it represents an uneven force that is currently threatening not only Tosepan’s sustainability, but also the entire population and the environment of this Mexican region. M-IES

The last decade, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has become mandatory in many European countries, but implementation on farm level is lagging and evidence for the barriers and driving forces is lacking. The goal of this thesis was to expand the understanding of how to improve the implementation of IPM by investigating Norwegian grain farmers’ pest management practices and decision processes. A survey of 617 Norwegian grain farmers was conducted in addition to in-depth interviews of 24 of the respondents. An IPM index was developed to categorise the respondents according to their use of IPM practices. Having an environmental mindset, being concerned with crop quality, having frequent contact with peers, and a high level of education was found to correlate positively with increased use of IPM, whereas decreased use coincided with having a low farming income and being concerned with entirely eradicating pests. The effect of the local conventions and norms regarding pest management appeared to affect the decision processes of the farmers in ways that presented both barriers to and drivers for increased implementation of IPM. Supporting the integration of the concepts of IPM into what is good farming practices in local farming communities is paramount for increased adoption of IPM. NIBIO M-AE

Rouge National Urban Park has been described as "the first of its kind" in Canada. Its proximity to the largest urban centre in the country, and the challenges represented by this, makes it an interesting case study in environmental governance. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the institutional change represented by the transition in the status and management of the Rouge from a local park to a national park. This thesis aims to answer the questions: 1. What were the main characteristics of the decision-making process that resulted in the establishment of Rouge National Urban Park? 2. How did the regime change after the transition to Parks Canada? 3. What are the effects of the new regime on the actions of economic and civil society actors? 4. What are the expected impacts of the new regime on the resources in the park and how they will be used in the future? To analyze the institutional change in resource management exemplified by the establishment of Rouge National Urban Park, this thesis will use the Environmental Governance Framework proposed by Vatn (2015). Under this framework, it will examine the different actors involved in the transition to the new national park regime, as well as their preferences, interests, and interactions. National parks are seen as an institution, which has some basis on internationally- accepted definitions of protected areas under the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Category II. To analyze the results of the new regime, Underdal (2002)’s framework on Regime Effectiveness will be used. The change in the park’s legislation and operations are seen as the output of the decision-making process, while its effect on economic and civil society actors’ behaviour is seen as its outcome. Finally, the long-term effect of the decision-making process and its output on the resource being governed is seen as the impact. Per date, it has only been possible to indicate what is expected, Rouge National Urban Park is relatively new. This particular case study is examined from different actors’ perspectives. To do so, qualitative research methods such as interviews and literature reviews have been used. An array of primary and secondary sources, such as government documents, public documents, and news articles, have also been chosen to provide a balanced and diverse overview of the issue. It is worth noting that, as exemplified in this case, politics has as much to do with conservation as does governance. This is due to the fact that decision-making is a political process, and the resulting legislation frames the way resources are managed. While it remains to be seen what the long-term impact of these decisions will be on the natural and cultural resources in the park, this thesis contends that the park lands will be better administered under federal management. Not only will the Rouge be protected in perpetuity, but once the land transfers have been finalized, an important natural ecological corridor will be formalized and preserved. Having these lands unified and maintained by an agency with the mandate and the means to do so will be beneficial, especially due to the park’s location within developed areas. At the same time, it will be vital to continue partnerships with important stakeholders such as farming communities, First Nations groups, and local conservationists. Maintaining the balance between nature and culture in an urban setting means that the Rouge represents a new model of park management in Canada. Lessons learned from its experience could be applied in similar cases around the world. M-IES

Within the scope of the study, the current situation and management practices regarding healthcare waste such as waste generation, segregation, on-site and off side collection and transportation, storage, and disposal were examined. Moreover, this study analysed the implementation status of hospital waste management (HWM) rules 2005 in both public and private hospitals also discussed the overall causes of malpractices of waste management as well as factors contributing to better healthcare waste management particularly in the private hospitals of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Qualitative research method was used for this study. In total, forty-four interviews were conducted in selected public and private hospitals equally, of which thirty-seven were semi-structured interviews and remaining seven were informal interviews. The study found the improper applications, inconsistencies, and deficiencies in the whole system of the waste management. The limited knowledge of hospital waste management rules 2005 particularly among nurses, paramedics, waste handling staff and administration in public hospitals was a serious concern. Lack of proper and simple monitoring and supervision system has further exacerbated the situation. Similarly, the limited scope and complicated nature of the regulations in hospital waste management rules 2005 makes the compliance challenging. Based on the evaluation of hospital waste management (HWM) rules 2005 and comparison of the current practices in both public and private sectors, changes and amendments in the healthcare waste management legislation and the reasons for the gaps between the public and private sectors were identified. These include the revision of legislation section No.4 to section No.14 and similarly section No.23 and section No.24 to make the rules practically implementable in both public and private sectors. The findings should be a good basis for making improvements in the management of healthcare waste in Peshawar as well as in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. M-IES

During the 80s and 90s, many post-communist countries underwent structural transition processes advocated by neoliberal institutions. Rapid transitions from one structure to another resulted in chaos as the implementation of sound institutions to manage new property rights regimes were insufficient. The emphasis of the transition period to open borders and integrate societies into the free market side-lined other concerns such as environmental conservation and protection. The IMF facilitated this move in Albania through structural adjustment programmes and stringent conditionality in its financial lending. The Albanian society was in deep socio-economic crisis emerging from an autocratic communist rule and the natural environment had suffered through industrial pollution and deforestation. Neoliberal restructuring failed to recognise the need for environmental rehabilitation and protection due to its ideological nature, and the pressing socio-economic situation in Albania made funds allocations difficult, resulting in further absence of environmental regulations. This research scrutinises communism and neoliberalism applied in Albania in the late 80s and 90s as insufficient systems for environmental protection. Through an analysis using urban air pollution, industrial pollution and deforestation as measurements of environmental impact of IMF policies and national policies - economic and environmental - the study calls for an alternative system to aid sustainable environmental governance. Accentuating the need for holistic approaches to structural change, with significant participation from the population on local, regional and national levels, for creating new systems which reduce negative environmental consequences as well as socio-economic problems. M-IES

The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to the academic and political debate on climate-related disclosures as a policy response to climate changes. Specifically, the study provides empirical evidence from a qualitative case study exploring the French climate-related transparency regime for institutional investors (FCTR) anchored in Article 173-VI of the French Energy Transition Law. This case is of particular interest because it represents the first attempt at mandating climate-related disclosures for institutional investors. While this case has received a great deal of attention in political and financial circles globally, it remains largely undiscovered in academic terms. The purpose of the thesis is operationalised through four research questions. Firstly, the study seeks to investigate what the FCTR is, and how it can be understood as political phenomenon. Next, it asks what kind of institutional structures the transparency regime represent, and how these impact investors. Drawing on this insight, the third question sets out to identify impacts and limitations with the current configuration of the FCTR. Finally, the fourth question aims to propose a set of recommendations for the future development of climate-related disclosures for institutional investors. The study applies a stakeholder approach to the selection of informants, aiming to illuminate the case from several relevant angles. In total, 14 semi-structured interviews were conducted with representatives from six stakeholder groups: asset owners, asset managers, financial intermediaries, NGOs/interest organisations, public authority, and researchers. The study finds that the FCTR, and the institutional foundation it builds on, has strengthened the development of ‘climate conscious’ norms amongst institutional investors. The role of ‘norm entrepreneurs’ from interest organisations, and to some degree the Government and the finance industry, has been identified as an important factor in the norm building; so has the momentum created by the French presidency of COP21. However, the climate conscious norms seem to be at a pre-internalised stage as of now, and their implications for investor choices appear to be limited. Another key finding is that the FCTR has sped up the research and development efforts into metrics and indicators usable to measure climate-related risks, opportunities, and impact. The final institutional aspect of the FCTR, formal rules, appears rather weak as the FCTR is constructed on a comply or explain fundament and does not currently have any formal monitoring body or sanction structures. Nonetheless, it appears from the findings that investors feel obliged to comply with the law for reputational reasons. In sum, the FCTR is a greenfield policy project that deserves some patience while the mechanisms are tested. Still, it is worth exploring its preliminary impacts and shortcomings, as other states have signalled that they will not be far behind France in mandating investor climate disclosure. M-IES

For societies to create mitigation policies that achieve sufficient support for cutting greenhouse gas emissions, a better understanding of people’s positions on climate change and climate policies is necessary. This thesis concentrates on two parts of this broader topic. Its two objectives are 1) to increase knowledge about the relationships between individuals’ political value orientation, climate concern and attitudes toward climate policies, and 2) to provide insights into how institutional context may influence the relationships between political value orientation and attitudes toward climate policies. For å nå målet om å skape et lavutslippssamfunn og begrense klimaendringene trengs en bedre forståelse av folks syn på klimaendringer og klimapolitikk. Denne avhandlingen fokuserer på to sider av dette emnet. Avhandlingens to mål er 1) å øke kunnskapen om forholdet mellom politisk verdiorientering, holdninger til klimaendringer og holdninger til klimapolitikk, og 2) bidra til innsikt i hvordan institusjonell kontekst kan påvirke forholdet mellom politisk verdiorientering og holdninger til klimapolitikk.

I en verden der naturressursene forbrukes i et stadig raskere tempo og forringelsene av miljøet øker, er det stadig viktigere å fremme og legge til rette for adferd som er miljømessig bærekraftig. Ulike typer politikk er innført for å løse disse utfordringene, og bruken av økonomiske insentiver har blitt populært for å forsøke å oppnå miljømessig bærekraft. Derimot har forskning i de siste tiårene rapportert at å bruke et økonomisk insentiv ikke er like enkelt som man kanskje skulle tro. I noen tilfeller kan det til og med gi det motsatte resultatet av det som var ment da en innførte det økonomiske insentivet. Derfor krever det gjennomtenkte vurderinger, med tanke på hva som karakteriserer individers motivasjon og adferd, for å kunne fremme eller legge til rette for miljømessig bærekraftig adferd gjennom bruk av økonomiske insentiver. Samfunnsvitenskapene tilbyr ulike teoretiske perspektiver og tilnærminger om dette emnet, og som resulterer i ulike politiske råd. En måte å skille mellom samfunnsvitenskapelige teorier er å forstå hvordan de forklarer sosiale fenomener, det vil si om de forklarer sosiale fenomener ved å fokusere på individet eller på sosiale strukturer. In a world where natural resources are consumed at an ever-faster pace and environmental degradation escalates, it has become increasingly important to promote and facilitate for environmentally sustainable behavior. Different kinds of policies are implemented to address these challenges and the use of economic incentives has become popular to try to obtain environmental sustainability. However, research over the last decades report that to use economic incentive is not as straightforward as one might think. In some cases, to implement an economic incentive can even give the opposite result of what was intended. Hence, to promote or facilitate for environmentally sustainable behavior through the use of economic incentives calls for a thoughtful engagement with what characterizes individuals' motivation and behavior. Social sciences offer different perspectives and approaches when theorizing about this topic resulting in different kinds of policy advice. One way to distinguish between theories in social sciences is to understand how they explain social phenomena, that is, whether they explain social phenomena through focusing at the individual or at social structures.

This thesis focuses on forest governance and the establishment of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) pilot projects in the Équateur province of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The province is considered to host 28 per cent of the total forest area in the DRC and has been selected for the national REDD+ integrated programme supported by the Central Africa Forest Initiative. The programme is launched in a context in which the use and management of forests do not meet the needs and aspirations of forest-dependent communities. Increased poverty is actually observed, a trend that seems to be caused by weak institutions and enforcement, conflicting claims over forests and exclusion of forest dwellers and marginalised groups (Batwa Pygmies) with regards to decision-making about forest resources and access to benefits. Denne avhandlingen omhandler skogbruksforvaltning og etableringen av pilotprosjekter rettet mot reduksjon av klimautslipp fra avskoging (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, REDD+) i Équateur-provinsen i Den demokratiske republikken Kongo (DRC). Det anslås at denne provinsen har 28 prosent av skogen i DRC, og den har blitt valgt ut til å delta i det nasjonale REDD+ programmet støttet av Central Africa Forest Initiative. REDD+ lanseres i et område der skogbruket ikke evner å møte behovene til befolkningen. Fattigdommen blant den skogavhengige befolkingen er økende. Dette er en trend som ser ut til å skyldes svake institusjoner med svak håndheving, motstridende krav vedrørende adgang til skogressursene, utestengelse av lokalbefolkningen – ikke minst særlig marginaliserte grupper (Batwa-pygmeer) – fra arenaer der viktige beslutninger om bruk av skogressurser og fordeling av avkastning tas.

The threat of underwater noise pollution was recognized by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) which adopted the voluntary guidelines for the reduction of underwater noise from commercial shipping to address adverse impacts on marine life in 2014. Underwater noise pollution is a transboundary pollutant caused by cavitation of ship propellers which disturbs the behavior of marine mammals. This thesis investigates international and United States national regulations and their demands regarding actions to reduce underwater noise pollution. Additionally, the thesis examines the process of establishing the voluntary guidelines at the IMO and the ways in which political, economic, and civil society actors evaluate the voluntary guidelines. Finally, this research explores the expected outcomes of the voluntary guidelines as evaluated by economic actors and the motivations of economic actors to implement the guidelines. This thesis draws upon Vatn’s environmental governance system framework which aids in understanding the interactions between institutions, actors, and policies. Theories on resource regimes, voluntarism, precautionary principle, and policy entrepreneurship are further used to understand the empirical data on which this thesis is based. Qualitative data from documents and interviews with political, economic, and civil society actors in the United States provides the empirical basis for evaluating the voluntary guidelines. The results from this thesis show that because of the transboundary nature of sound, international agreements provide a useful basis for addressing the effects of noise pollution. The United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) define pollution as energy and substance respectively. Therefore, UNCLOS covers noise pollution implicitly. However, neither UNCLOS nor MARPOL 73/78 address noise pollution explicitly. M-IES

This thesis is grounded in the discussion on how REDD+ should be governed on the ground in Tanzania. The debate has mainly been in relation to two governance structures of REDD+. The first structure is what has been proposed in the National REDD+ Strategy where state authorities are key actors. The second structure is what has been advocated by Civil Society Organizations where forest communities have direct access to the carbon market. The dilemma that these structures present is whether REDD+ funding should be used in order to strengthen weak state governance or to empower forest communities by having direct access to the carbon market? The goal of this thesis has been to evaluate the implications of selecting either of the two models where the main focus has been concerning the implications for the local government in Tanzania. In order to study the process, a qualitative research approach has been used. The analysis is mainly based on primary data collected by semi-structured interviews, however, secondary data such as research articles, reports and government documents have been used in addition. The main findings suggest that the district government acted as ‘service providers’ to the NGOs in the implementation process. Although the implications for the district have been positive, it has not been to a large degree. In terms of input legitimacy, it would seem like the informants from the district perceived the process as legitimate, however, there might be some disagreements at village level. From a theoretical perspective, there are some key issues in relation to the legitimacy of the process due to how NGOs were able to dominate in relation to decision-making and how there was a detachment of democratic accountability. In conclusion, this thesis has argued that the best solution would be to go with the model proposed in the National REDD+ Strategy because it could possibly result in empowerment of the forest sector at local level. M-IES

REDD+ aims to reduce deforestation and forest degradation in the developing countries. Forests and related resources are important sources of income for rural households. Kilosa district is one area in Tanzania where the REDD+ initiative was introduced. The pilot project started in 2010 and ended in 2014. This study aims at ‘taking stock’ of REDD+ in terms of discovering whether the intervention had any impact on local people’s livelihoods in Kilosa district. More specifically, the study evaluates changes in local institutions, people’s evaluation of these changes and the possible impacts of REDD+ on people’s livelihoods. The study is part of the ‘Man and Forests’ project which was funded by the Norwegian Research Council in 2014. This study employed two theoretical frameworks, namely the environmental governance systems framework and the rural livelihoods framework. In terms of methodology, the study used BACI (before-after-control-impact) design whereby both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used. Following this methodology, field data from Kilosa district was collected from two pilot villages (Nyali and Lunenzi) and two control villages (Zombo and Lumango) in 2010 and 2015. Field data included household surveys and qualitative data. Additionally, the study used literature from secondary sources and archives. Qualitative data was used to assess the changes in institutions and the local people’s evaluation of the changes. The results from these data showed a shift of property rights, from state property to common property, in the pilot villages. Moreover, there were changes in formal rules regarding use of forest and related resources in these two villages. Despite the existence of the formal rules, illegal timber logging and charcoal making were common activities in Nyali in both periods. Regarding control villages, there were no changes in property rights, as one would expect. Rules for use of resources have also not changed since 2010. However, it was observed that use of resources was de facto under open access in 2015 as was the case in 2010. When it comes to local people’s evaluations of the institutional changes, it was discovered that majority of the informants in the pilot villages were satisfied with the REDD+ as well as the pre-REDD+ rules. The two main reasons for satisfaction with the pre-REDD+ rules in both villages were equal distribution of resource use and benefits and good accessibility to resources. However, it seems that people in Lunenzi were more positive to the pre-REDD+ compared to those in Nyali. Additionally, the results suggested weaker forest governance in Nyali compared to Lunenzi in 2010. In terms of REDD+ rules, the two main reasons for satisfaction were issues such as clear boundaries and people’s participation in making rules. Concerning variations across the villages, the results showed that people in Lunenzi were more positive than those in Nyali as was the case in 2010. In addition, forest governance was still better in Lunenzi in 2015 compared to Nyali. Nevertheless, it was noted that forest governance had improved in Nyali in 2015 compared to 2010. The results from the surveys reveal severe reductions in gross total household incomes in both pilot and control villages between the two study periods. Moreover, there were reductions in most of the income categories. This is mainly because of drought that hit these villages in 2014. To test whether REDD+ has had a role to play in this respect, panel data analysis was done for gross total household incomes, total forest incomes and total farmed area. Results from the panel data analysis showed that REDD+ did not have significant effect on local people’s gross total income and total farmed area. Interestingly, REDD+ had a positive impact on total forest income. The thesis recommends national policies for poverty alleviation in Kilosa district and beyond. It further proposes an increase in alternative livelihoods and agricultural investments in the REDD+ pilot villages in order to reduce deforestation. M-IES

Reduced Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is a resource regime framework developed to enhance global carbon stocks from forests. It is based on the idea to pay national governments and rural communities of the Global South to protect and regenerate their forests for increased storage of carbon. REDD+ represents a global intervention applied as a means to mitigate climate change. In Tanzania, REDD+ has been piloted since 2010. The pilot projects across the country seek to generate experience regarding how to establish REDD+ and learn how to enhance carbon stocks as well as increase biodiversity and improve the livelihoods of forest adjacent communities. Setting up REDD+ at the local level has been a process involving many institutional changes. REDD+ demanded establishing new governance structures – actors and institutions – for managing forest resources and new alternative livelihoods for adapting to change. These changes are expected to benefit communities, protect the forests and climate. This thesis evaluates impacts from REDD+ on forest governance and livelihoods. I have conducted a case study in Kondoa district, central Tanzania, to document local experiences and assess impacts of REDD+ on people’s income and the status of forests. The REDD+ project in Kondoa has been piloted from 2010 to 2014 by the African Wildlife Foundation, covering the area around the government Kolo Hills forest reserves as well as forests on village land. The Kolo Hills is a watershed area to the Tarangire National Park and has been under protection for many years. Some parts of forests are owned by the central government, some by the local government (district), while other parts are owned and managed by the communities. Hence, the project combines emphasis on both JFM and CBFM. The primary data were collected in November 2015 using key resource person interviews, household questionnaires and focus group discussions in villages surrounding the Kolo Hills. BACI (before-after-control-impact) format is applied to compare pre-project and post-project conditions, and evaluate results against the counterfactual - the control sites which are sites where REDD+ is not introduced. Data for 2010 - pre REDD+ observations - had been collected at the time, and made available for my analysis. Acknowledging potential errors associated with the method, the study therefore investigates if changes are due to REDD+ or other factors. I develop a conceptual framework for the analysis to explain how change in the governance structures influence environmental and livelihood outcomes. The results have shown that changes in the governance structures have introduced the new type of actors and formed new institutions for managing forest resources. It implied change in property rights, as well as in rules over forest resource use. Despite these changes, I find that REDD+ in Kondoa has had no significant effect on rural livelihoods nor on deforestation. Income goes down quite substantially from 2010 till 2015. This reduction seems, however, mainly explained by a severe drought in 2014. Under various pressures of population growth, land scarcity, droughts and soil erosion, informal institutions for farming and especially livestock grazing in the government Kolo Hills reserves dominate over the introduced institutional changes under REDD+. Communities are highly aware of importance to protect their forests, however, changes in the governance structures has not addressed the core problems communities face. REDD+ institutionally seem to be more prospective under CBFM than embedded with JFM. Nevertheless, what happens when REDD+ meets realities on the ground also depend on the core foundation of a good governance in the villages it is built on. M-IES

This thesis is written within the contemporary classical institutional economics tradition. The intention has been to provide insight into how different institutions can enable us to avoid harmful effects and generate beneficial effects on the environment and food security from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This is done by analysing how institutions influence perspectives on GMOs, the GMOs that are developed and commercialized, as well as our ability to handle possible uncertain and unknown effects of GMOs. The thesis consists of 4 papers. Paper 1 analyses scientists’ perspectives on the release of GMOs into the environment, and the relationship between their perspectives and the institutional context that they work within, e.g. their place of employment (university or industry), funding of their research (public or industry) and their disciplinary background (ecology, molecular biology or conventional plant breeding). Q-methodology is employed to examine these issues. Two distinct perspectives are identified by interviewing 62 scientists. Perspective 1 is characterised by a moderately negative attitude to GMOs and the uncertainty and ignorance involved are emphasised. Perspective 2 is characterised by a positive attitude to GMOs and it is emphasised that GMOs are useful and do not represent any unique risks compared to conventional crops. The results show a strong association between scientists’ perspective on GMOs and the explanatory variables training, funding and place of employment. Paper 2 analyses how different institutional structures shape the research and development (R&D) of GMOs. Whether this R&D is conducted within companies, cooperatives or public research organisations is expected to influence the type of crops and traits that are developed and therefore the effects on society and ecosystems that potentially could follow from the use of GMOs. This issue is analysed empirically by statistical analysis of 1323 notifications for field trials with GMOs in the EU. The results show that the type of R&D organisation influences strongly the traits and crops that are developed. Paper 3 analyses how the type of regulation for marketing of GMOs influences which GMOs that are commercialised. The EU and Norway have assessed the release of GMOs as commercial products quite differently. Of twenty four notifications approved by the EU, Norway has approved four, rejected ten, and has ten pending. The paper examines whether these differences could be explained by different judgments concerning the effects to be prevented and encouraged, response to uncertainty and and the burden of proof defined. Norwegian rejections are found to be explicable by the combination of no real benefit to society, lack of scientific knowledge, and involved risks. The main explanation for the EU approvals is that they see no reason to believe that there will be any adverse effects on health and the environment. Paper 4 analyses how capable three different governance regimes are for adequate handling of uncertain and unknown effects of GMOs. GMOs are characterized by strong uncertainty. This implies that procedures for identification, reduction and monitoring of uncertainty, as well as how to treat irreducible uncertainty will be highly incomplete. Governance mechanisms that facilitate cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality (communicate with the intention of reaching agreement exclusively via the force of better arguments) are therefore needed. The three governance regimes compared are: GMOs are produced by private firms and these firms are made liable for harm (GR1), GMOs are produced by private firms and the government decides whether the crops should be marketed (GR2), GMOs are produced by public research organisations and the government decides whether the crops should be marketed (GR3). GR3 will be stronger in cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality than GR2. Public research organisations have fewer conflicts of interest with the government than private firms, and academic norms are important as opposed to firms where commercial norms are important. Difficulties in proving harm and identifying the responsible firm will make GR1 weak in cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality. Based on the results of this thesis it is advised that consideration of the environment and food security justify institutional reforms concerning how we decide which GMOs that should be released into the environment and how we organise the R&D of GMOs. My analysis suggests that it is important to involve scientists from several disciplines in public marketing decisions on new technologies and that information about the contextual background of the scientists is relevant in these decisions. There are strong arguments for changing current practise where those that apply for marketing approval of GMOs also produce the risk assessment prior to marketing and the post marketing monitoring. It is further important to increase public GMO research to secure scientific advices and development of products that are independent from the priorities of the industry and to a greater extent could serve public needs. Denne avhandlinga er skrevet innenfor en moderne, klassisk institusjonell økonomisk tradisjon. Hensikten har vært å frambringe kunnskap om hvordan ulike institusjoner kan gjøre oss i stand til å unngå skadelige og å frambringe gunstige effekter av genetiske modifiserte organismer (GMOer) på miljø og matvaresikkerhet. Dette er gjort ved å analysere hvordan institusjoner påvirker perspektiver på GMOer, hvilke GMOer som utvikles og kommersialiseres, samt vår evne til å håndtere usikre og ukjente effekter av GMOer. Avhandlinga består av 4 artikler. Artikkel 1 analyserer 62 forskeres syn på effekter av GMOer, og sammenhengen mellom synet deres og den institusjonelle konteksten de arbeider i, i form av type arbeidsplass (universitet eller industri), finansiering av forskning (offentlig eller privat) og fagdisiplin (økologi, molekylær biologi, eller tradisjonell planteforedling). Ved bruk av Q-metode ble to ulike syn identifisert. Syn 1 innebar en moderat negativ holdning til GMOer og vektla usikkerhet og uvitenhet. Syn 2 innebar en positiv holding til GMOer og vektla at GMOer er nyttige og ikke vesentlig forskjellige fra konvensjonelle landbruksvekster. Resultatene viser en sterk sammenheng mellom forskeres syn på GMOer og forklaringsvariablene utdanning, finansiering og type arbeidsplass. Artikkel 2 analyserer hvordan ulike institusjonelle strukturer former forskning og utvikling (F&U) av GMOer. Vi forventa at om denne F&U blir gjort enten i private bedrifter, landbrukssamvirker, eller offentlige forskningsorganisasjoner påvirker hvilke arter og egenskaper som blir utvikla og dermed hvilke samfunns- og miljøeffekter som kan følge fra GMOer. Vi studerte dette ved hjelp av statistisk analyse av 1323 søknader om feltforsøk med GMOer i EU. Resultatene viser en sterk sammenheng mellom type forskningsorganisasjon og hvilke arter og egenskaper som blir utvikla. Artikkel 3 analyserer hvordan type regulering for omsetning av GMOer påvirker hvilke GMOer som blir godkjent for kommersiell bruk. Den europeiske unionen (EU) og Norge har vurdert søknader om omsetning av GMOer forskjellig. Av 24 søknader som er godkjent av EU, har Norge godkjent fire, avvist ti og ikke tatt stilling til ti. Artikkelen analyserer om disse forskjellene kan forklares med ulike vurderinger av hvilke effekter som er ønska og uønska, hvordan man reagerer på usikkerhet og uvitenhent og hva som er en rimelig bevisbyrde. De norske avslaga kan forklares med at de ikke kunne se at GMO-søknadene hadde samfunnsmessig nytteverdi eller var bærekraftige, samt at de vektla uheldige miljøeffekter og mangel på vitenskapelig kunnskap. Hovedforklaringen på godkjennelsene i EU er at de ikke fant noen grunner til at skadelige effekter ville inntreffe. Artikkel 4 analyserer hvor egna tre ulike regimer er for å håndtere usikre og ukjente effekter av GMOer. Stor usikkerhet knytta til GMOer medfører at prosedyrer for å identifisere, redusere og overvåke usikkerhet, samt hvordan man skal håndtere ikkereduserbar usikkerhet blir ufullstendige. Styringsmekanismer som legger til rette for samarbeidsvilje og kommunikativ rasjonalitet (kommunikasjon som har til hensikt å oppnå enighet ved bruk av argumenter) blir derfor viktig. Følgende tre regimer er sammenligna: GMOer produseres i private bedrifter og disse bedriftene er ansvarlige for eventuelle skader (R1), GMOer produseres i private bedrifter og myndighetene bestemmer hvilke GMOer som kan omsettes i markedet (R2), GMOer produseres i offentlige forskningsorganisasjoner og myndighetene bestemmer hvilke GMOer som kan omsettes i markedet (R3). Det er sannsynlig at R3 vill føre til bedre samarbeidsvilje og mer kommunikativ rasjonalitet enn R2. Offentlige forskningsorganisasjoner har færre interessekonflikter med myndighetene enn de private, og de er i større grad karakterisert av akademiske normer. Kommersielle normer har derimot en større plass i private bedrifter. Vanskeligheter med å bevise skade og skadegjører kan føre til at R1 gir svak samarbeidsvilje og lite kommunikativ rasjonalitet. Funnene i avhandlingen innebærer at dersom hensyn til miljø og matvaresikkerhet er viktige, bør man gjennomføre institusjonelle endringer av hvordan man beslutter hvilke GMOer som kan omsettes i markedet og hvordan samfunnet organiserer F&U av GMOer. Min analyse antyder at det er viktig å involvere forskere fra ulike disipliner i offisielle beslutninger om hvilke GMOer som kan omsettes og at informasjon om den kontekstuelle bakgrunnen til disse forskerne er relevant. Det er sterke argumenter for å endre dagens praksis hvor de som søker om å få omsette GMOer i markedet også gjennomfører risikovurderingen og overvåkningen. Det synes videre viktig å øke andelen offentlig GMO-forskning for å sikre vitenskapelige råd som er uavhengige av industrienes prioriteringer og som i større kan tjene samfunnets interesser.

Jordbruket produserer mer enn bare varer som kan omsettes i markeder. I tillegg produseres en lang rekke goder, onder og tjenester som ikke kan omsettes i markeder. Jordbruket kan på grunn av dette gi bidra til ulike samfunnsmessige mål samtidig. Dette er essensen i det multifunksjonelle landbruket. Mengdene av de ”produktene” som ikke kan omsettes i markedet vil ikke være samfunnsmessig optimale siden produsentene, dvs. bøndene, ikke får de rette signalene gjennom markende. En måte å korrigere for disse eksternalitetene på, som er hovedtema i avhandlingen, er å betale/skattlegge bøndene direkte basert på hvor mye de produserer av de ulike godene, ondene og tjenestene. Imidlertid, dette er ikke den eneste muligheten, og i en del tilfeller er dette ikke den optimale løsningen. Mange av ”produktene” fra jordbruket er koblet i den forstand at dersom en endrer mengden av ett endres også mengden av ett eller flere andre. Dette, som kalles koblet produksjon eller jointness på engelsk, skyldes enten tekniske og biologiske prosesser eller økonomiske faktorer som faste allokerbare innsatsfaktorer. Dersom vi kjenner disse sammenhengen, vil ulike kombinasjoner av skatlegging/subsidiering av innsatsfaktorer, ”produkter” og praksiser føre til de ønskede mengdene sett fra samfunnets side. I en slik situasjon vil den optimale politikken være den som fører til de laveste administrasjonskostnadene. To av artiklene i denne avhandlingen omhandler virkemidler for å redusere nitrogenforurensingen fra jordbruket. Siden forurensingen fra hver gård eller hvert skifte ikke kan måles eller er veldig kostbar å måle, vil ikke direkte skattlegging av forurensingen være mulig/fornuftig. Den første artikkelen analyserer effekten av private transaksjonskostnader i et marked for omsettelige gjødselkvoter. Det blir vist at transaksjonskostnadene i liten grad påvirker handelen i kvotemarkedet, og at omsettelige kvoter har den forventede miljøeffekten. Den andre artikkelen analyserer en mulighet for å fjerne noe av usikkerheten knyttet til hva som er optimal gjødsling det enkelte år. Det foreslåtte virkemidlet er et system med delte kvoter. Den første delen av kvoten blir tildelt om våren og er lik hvert år, mens den andre delen blir tildelt senere basert på hva som anses som optimal gjødsling hvert enkelt år. Resultatene indikerer at virkemidlet gir reduksjoner i forurensingen til en lavere kostnad (både for samfunnet og for bonden) enn en avgift på gjødsel. De to andre artiklene er knyttet til transaksjonskostnader og optimal politikk når produksjonen er koblet. Transaksjonskostnadene er mye lavere når virkemidlene er knyttet til varer enn når de er knyttet til andre objekter. Dersom koblingen er slikt at bonden ikke kan påvirke den, er virkemidler knyttet til varer helt klart det optimale for å korrigere for eksternaliteter. Dersom koblingen er mer fleksibel, er det ikke mulig å trekke generelle konklusjoner. Forskjellene i transaksjonskostnader mellom ulike mulige virkemidler vil imidlertid fortsatt være avgjørende. Analysene viser også at transaksjonskostnadene kan reduseres betydelig gjennom å redusere antallet virkemidler. Dette er ikke overraskende, men det er overraskende hvor fort transaksjonskostnadene øker når en øker antallet virkemidler (og holder den totale overføringen konstant). For et land som ikke er konkurransedyktig på verdensmarkedene, som Norge, indikerer analysene at den optimale politikken er å bruke prisstøtte (direkte og indirekte) for å sikre produksjon på et vist nivå, og å supplere dette med andre virkemidler som for eksempel direkte støtte for å produsere miljøgoder. Det første vil føre til et vist nivå av de kollektive godene, mens det siste kan brukes for å finjustere produksjonen av dem. Agriculture produces more than just commodities that can be and are traded in markets. In addition, agriculture provides a large range of non-market outputs in the form of goods, bads and services. These multiple outputs may contribute to different societal objectives at once, which is the essence of the concept of multifunctional agriculture. The quantities of the non-market goods, bads and services may not be socially optimal since the producers do not receive the right signals through the markets. One option for correcting for these externalities is to use direct payments/taxes based on level of the non-market outputs. However, this is not the only options, and in some cases this is definitely not the optimal option. Many of the outputs in agriculture are linked in such a way that a change in the level of one will affect the levels of the others. This, termed jointness, is due to technical and biological processes and economic factors like fixed allocable inputs. If these relationships are known, different combinations of taxes/subsidies on inputs, outputs and practices may be used to induce the socially desirable levels of the agricultural outputs. In this setting the optimal policy mix is the mix that results in lowest administrative costs. Two of the papers in this thesis discuss policy measures to reduce nitrogen pollution from agriculture. Since pollution at farm or field level is not observable or very costly to monitor, taxing emissions directly is not a viable option. The first paper analyzes the effect of private transaction costs in a market for fertilizer quotas. It is shown that transaction costs do not influence trade much, and that tradable fertilizer quotas have the expected environmental effects. The second paper analyzes one option for resolving some of the uncertainty about the growing conditions a given year. The proposed instrument is a two-round quota system: a year independent amount is awarded in the spring while the quota in the second (later) round is awarded based on the expected optimal fertilization level the given year. Results indicate that abatement costs (both private and social) are lower for the proposed instrument than for a nitrogen tax. More research is needed in order to investigate the possibility and costs of estimating the yearly optimal fertilization levels ex ante. The two other papers concern transaction costs and optimal policies under jointness. Transaction costs are much lower for polices targeting commodities than for polices targeting other objects. If jointness is such that it is not possible for the farmer to influence the proportions of the different outputs it is clearly optimal to target the commodity. For more flexible forms of jointness it is not possible to draw a general conclusion. Still, the differences in transaction costs between policy options are of great importance. The analysis also shows that transaction costs can be reduced substantially by reducing the number of schemes. It is not surprising that merging schemes would result in lower administrative costs, but it is surprising how fast the total transaction costs increase as the number of schemes increases (given a total transfer to farmers). For a country that is not competitive on the world market, like Norway, the analysis suggests that the optimal policy is to use commodity based support to induce production up to a certain level and to supplement this with other measures like direct payment for the production of public goods. The first will insure a certain level of public goods production wile the latter may be used for fine-tuning public goods production.