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Abstract Sampling is a pivotal element in the design of metasurfaces, enabling a broad spectrum of applications. Despite its flexibility, sampling can result in reduced efficiency and unintended diffractions, which are more pronounced at high numerical aperture or shorter wavelengths, e.g. ultraviolet spectrum. Prevailing metasurface research has often relied on the conventional Nyquist sampling theorem to assess sampling appropriateness, however, our findings reveal that the Nyquist criterion is insufficient guidance for sampling in metasurface. Specifically, we find that the performance of a metasurface is significantly correlated to the geometric relationship between the spectrum morphology and sampling lattice. Based on lattice-based diffraction analysis, we demonstrate several anti-aliasing strategies from visible to ultraviolet regimes. These approaches significantly reduce aliasing phenomena occurring in high numerical aperture metasurfaces. Our findings not only deepen the understanding in phase gradient metasurface but also pave the way for high numerical aperture operation down to the ultraviolet spectrum.

Abstract Sustainable energies from weather are the most ubiquitous and non-depleted resources. However, existing devices exploiting weather-dependent energies are sensitive to weather conditions and geographical locations, making their universal applicability challenging. Herein, we propose an all-weather sustainable glass surface integrating a triboelectric nanogenerator and radiative cooler, which serves as a sustainable device, harvesting energy from raindrops and saving energy on sunny days. By systematically designing transparent, high-performance triboelectric layers, functioning as thermal emitters simultaneously, particularly compatible with radiative cooling components optimized with an evolutionary algorithm, our proposed device achieves optimal performance for all-weather-dependent energies. We generate 248.28 Wm−2 from a single droplet with an energy conversion ratio of 2.5%. Moreover, the inner temperature is cooled down by a maximum of 24.1 °C compared to pristine glass. Notably, as the proposed device is realized to provide high transparency up to 80% in the visible range, we are confident that our proposed device can be applied to versatile applications.