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Background: Allergic sensitization to fungi has been associated with asthma severity. As a result, it has been largely assumed that the contribution of fungi to allergic disease is mediated through their potent antigenicity., Objective: We sought to determine the mechanism by which fungi affect asthma development and severity., Methods: We integrated epidemiologic and experimental asthma models to explore the effect of fungal exposure on asthma development and severity., Results: We report that fungal exposure enhances allergen-driven T H 2 responses, promoting severe allergic asthma. This effect is independent of fungal sensitization and can be reconstituted with β-glucan and abrogated by neutralization of IL-17A. Furthermore, this severe asthma is resistant to steroids and characterized by mixed T H 2 and T H 17 responses, including IL-13 + IL-17 + CD4 + double-producing effector T cells. Steroid resistance is dependent on fungus-induced T H 17 responses because steroid sensitivity was restored in IL-17rc -/- mice. Similarly, in children with asthma, fungal exposure was associated with increased serum IL-17A levels and asthma severity., Conclusion: Our data demonstrate that fungi are potent immunomodulators and have powerful effects on asthma independent of their potential to act as antigens. Furthermore, our results provide a strong rationale for combination treatment strategies targeting IL-17A for this subgroup of fungus-exposed patients with difficult-to-treat asthma., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists. AL Budelsky is a paid employee and stockholder in Amgen, Inc., (Copyright © 2016 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: IL-13 receptor α2 (IL-13Rα2) binds IL-13 with high affinity and modulates IL-13 responses. There are soluble and membrane forms of IL-13Rα2 generated by alternative splicing in mice, but human subjects express only the membrane form of IL-13Rα2 (memIL-13Rα2)., Objective: We determined the role of memIL-13Rα2 in the development of allergic inflammation in mouse models of asthma., Methods: IL-13Rα2-deficient and memIL-13Rα2 lung epithelium-specific transgenic mice were challenged with house dust mite (HDM). Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and inflammation were assessed based on the airway pressure-time index, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cell counts, and lung histology. Mucus production was determined by means of periodic acid-Schiff staining of lung sections, Western blot analysis of chloride channel calcium activated 3 (CLCA3) expression in lung homogenates, and ELISA of Muc5ac in BAL fluid. The expression of cytokines and chemokines was determined by using RT-quantitative PCR., Results: In IL-13Rα2-deficient mice AHR and airway inflammation were attenuated compared with levels seen in wild-type mice after HDM challenge. Lung epithelial overexpression of memIL-13Rα2 in the IL-13Rα2-deficient mice reconstituted AHR and inflammation to levels similar to those observed in HDM-challenged wild-type mice. Mucus production was attenuated in lungs from HDM-treated IL-13Rα2-deficient mice, whereas lung epithelial overexpression of memIL-13Rα2 increased mucus production. Lung epithelial overexpression of memIL-13Rα2 had no effect on levels of the soluble form of IL-13Rα2 in serum or BAL fluid and did not affect IL-13-dependent signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 activation in the lungs., Conclusion: These data collectively support a distinct role for memIL-13Rα2 in the lung and suggest that memIL-13Rα2 might contribute to allergic inflammation., (Copyright © 2013 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: It is well accepted that mold exposure is a major contributor to the development of asthma, and beta-glucans are often used as a surrogate for mold exposure in the environment. Beta-glucans are an important component of mold spores and are recognized by the immune system by their receptor, Dectin-1. Cladosporium cladosporioides spores have a high beta-glucan content, but the beta-glucans are not available on the surface of live spores., Objective: We sought to determine whether altering the exposure of beta-glucans in C cladosporioides through heat killing could alter the immune response through binding to Dectin-1., Methods: In a murine model of mold-induced asthma, mice were repeatedly exposed to either live or heat-killed C cladosporioides and the phenotype was determined by the measurement of airway hyperresponsiveness, airway inflammation, and cytokine production. Pro-inflammatory cytokines from dendritic cells were measured by using quantitative PCR and ELISA., Results: Live C cladosporioides induced robust airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilia, and a predominately TH2 response, while heat-killed C cladosporioides induced a strong TH17 response and neutrophilic inflammation, but very mild airway hyperresponsiveness. Heat killing of C cladosporioides spores effectively exposed beta-glucans on the surface of the spores and increased binding to Dectin-1. In the absence of Dectin-1, heat-killed spores induced a predominantly TH2 response analogous to live spores. Furthermore, the production of TH17-skewing IL-6, IL-23, and TNF-α by dendritic cells in response to heat-killed C cladosporioides was dependent on Dectin-1., Conclusions: The host immune response to C cladosporioides is dependent on the surface availability of beta-glucans rather than the total beta-glucan content., (Copyright © 2013 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTPi) is the predominant redox regulator in the lung. Although evidence implicates an important role for GSTPi in asthma, the mechanism for this has remained elusive., Objectives: We sought to determine how GSTPi is regulated in asthma and to elucidate its role in maintaining redox homeostasis., Methods: We elucidated the regulation of GSTPi in children with asthma and used murine models of asthma to determine the role of GSTPi in redox homeostasis., Results: Our findings demonstrate that GSTPi transcript levels are markedly downregulated in allergen- and IL-13-treated murine models of asthma through signal transducer and activator of transcription 6-dependent and independent pathways. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 was also downregulated in these models. The decrease in GSTPi expression was associated with decreased total glutathione S-transferase activity in the lungs of mice. Examination of cystine intermediates uncovered a functional role for GSTPi in regulating cysteine oxidation, whereby GSTPi-deficient mice exhibited increased oxidative stress (increase in percentage cystine) compared with wild-type mice after allergen challenge. GSTPi expression was similarly downregulated in children with asthma., Conclusions: These data collectively suggest that downregulation of GSTPi after allergen challenge might contribute to the asthma phenotype because of disruption of redox homeostasis and increased oxidative stress. Furthermore, GSTPi might be an important therapeutic target for asthma, and evaluation of GSTPi expression might prove beneficial in identifying patients who would benefit from therapy targeting this pathway., (Copyright © 2011 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Asthma is a major public health burden worldwide. Studies from our group and others have demonstrated that SERPINB3 and SERPINB4 are induced in patients with asthma; however, their mechanistic role in asthma has yet to be determined., Objective: To evaluate the role of Serpin3a, the murine homolog of SERPINB3 and SERPINB4, in asthma., Methods: We studied wild-type Balb/c and Serpinb3a-null mice in house dust mite or IL-13-induced asthma models and evaluated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and goblet cell hyperplasia., Results: Airway hyperresponsiveness and goblet cell hyperplasia were markedly attenuated in the Serpinb3a-null mice compared with the wild-type mice after allergen challenge, with minimal effects on inflammation. Expression of sterile alpha motif pointed domain containing v-ets avian erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog transcription factor (SPDEF), a transcription factor that mediates goblet cell hyperplasia, was decreased in the absence of Serpinb3a. IL-13-treated Serpinb3a-null mice showed attenuated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and mucus production., Conclusion: Excessive mucus production and mucus plugging are key pathologic features of asthma, yet the mechanisms responsible for mucus production are not well understood. Our data reveal a novel nonredundant role for Serpinb3a in mediating mucus production through regulation of SPDEF expression. This pathway may be used to target mucus hypersecretion effectively., (Copyright © 2010 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)