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The IEEE 802.11ah standard is introduced to address the growing scale of internet of things (IoT) applications. To reduce contention and enhance energy efficiency in the system, the restricted access window (RAW) mechanism is introduced in the medium access control (MAC) layer to manage the significant number of stations accessing the network. However, to achieve optimized network performance, it is necessary to appropriately determine the RAW parameters, including the number of RAW groups, the number of slots in each RAW, and the duration of each slot. In this paper, we optimize the configuration of RAW parameters in the uplink IEEE 802.11ah-based IoT network. To improve network throughput, we analyze and establish a RAW parameters optimization problem. To effectively cope with the complex and dynamic network conditions, we propose a deep reinforcement learning (DRL) approach to determine the preferable RAW parameters to optimize network throughput. To enhance learning efficiency and stability, we employ the proximal policy optimization (PPO) algorithm. We construct network environments with periodic and random traffic in an NS-3 simulator to validate the performance of the proposed PPO-based RAW parameters optimization algorithm. The simulation results reveal that using the PPO-based DRL algorithm, optimized RAW parameters can be obtained under different network conditions, and network throughput can be improved significantly.

IEEE 802.11ah, or Wi-Fi HaLow, is a long-range Internet of Things (IoT) communication technology with promising performance claims. Being IP-based makes it an attractive prospect when interfacing with existing IP networks. Through real-world performance experiments, this study evaluates the network performance of Wi-Fi HaLow in terms of throughput, latency, and reliability against IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi n) and a competing IoT technology LoRa. These experiments are enabled through three proposed network evaluation architectures that facilitate remote control of the devices in a secure manner. The performance of Wi-Fi HaLow is then assessed against the network requirements of various smart grid applications. Wi-Fi HaLow offers promising performance when compared to rival technology LoRa. This study is the first to evaluate Wi-Fi HaLow in an authentic experimental way, providing performance data and insights that are not possible through simulation and modelling alone. This work provides the basis for further evaluation and implementation of this emerging technology.

The IEEE 802.11ah standard is intended to adapt the specifications of IEEE 802.11 to the Internet of Things (IoT) scenario. One of the main features of IEEE 802.11ah consists of the Restricted Access Window (RAW) mechanism, designed for scheduling transmissions of groups of stations within certain periods of time or windows. With an appropriate configuration, the RAW feature reduces contention and improves energy efficiency. However, the standard specification does not provide mechanisms for the optimal setting of RAW parameters. In this way, this paper presents a grouping strategy based on a genetic algorithm (GA) for IEEE 802.11ah networks operating under the RAW mechanism and considering heterogeneous stations, that is, stations using different modulation and coding schemes (MCS). We define a fitness function from the combination of the predicted system throughput and fairness, and provide the tuning of the GA parameters to obtain the best result in a short time. The paper also includes a comparison of different alternatives with regard to the stages of the GA, i.e., parent selection, crossover, and mutation methods. As a proof of concept, the proposed GA-based RAW grouping is tested on a more constrained device, a Raspberry Pi 3B+, where the grouping method converges in around 5 s. The evaluation concludes with a comparison of the GA-based grouping strategy with other grouping approaches, thus showing that the proposed mechanism provides a good trade-off between throughput and fairness performance.

IEEE 802.11ah, known as Wi-Fi HaLow, is envisioned for long-range and low-power communication. It is sub-1 GHz technology designed for massive Internet of Things (IoT) and machine-to-machine devices. It aims to overcome the IoT challenges, such as providing connectivity to massive power-constrained devices distributed over a large geographical area. To accomplish this objective, IEEE 802.11ah introduces several unique physical and medium access control layer (MAC) features. In recent years, the MAC features of IEEE 802.11ah, including restricted access window, authentication (e.g., centralized and distributed) and association, relay and sectorization, target wake-up time, and traffic indication map, have been intensively investigated from various aspects to improve resource allocation and enhance the network performance in terms of device association time, throughput, delay, and energy consumption. This survey paper presents an in-depth assessment and analysis of these MAC features along with current solutions, their potentials, and key challenges, exposing how to use these novel features to meet the rigorous IoT standards.

The IEEE 802.11ah is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to support the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). One of its main novelties is the restricted access window (RAW), which is a channel access feature designed to reduce channel contention by dividing stations into RAW groups. Each RAW group is further divided into RAW slots, and stations only attempt channel access during the RAW slot they were assigned to. In this paper, we propose a discrete-time Markov chain model to evaluate the average aggregate throughput of IEEE 802.11ah networks using the RAW mechanism under saturated traffic and ideal channel conditions. The proposed analytical model describes the behavior of an active station within its assigned RAW slot. A key aspect of the model is the consideration of the event of RAW slot time completion during a station’s backoff operation. We study the average aggregate network throughput for various numbers of RAW slots and stations in the network. The numerical results derived from our analytical model are compared to computer simulations based on an IEEE 802.11ah model developed for the ns-3 simulator by other researchers, and its performance is also compared to two other analytical models proposed in the literature. The presented results indicate that the proposed analytical model reaches the closest agreement with independently-derived computer simulations.

One of the latest protocols developed for the Internet of Things networks is IEEE 802.11ah, proposed by the WiFi Alliance. The new channel access mechanism in IEEE 802.11ah, which is called Restricted Access Window, aims at reducing the contention between the stations by allowing only selected stations to transmit data at certain time slots. Stations may exhibit selfish behavior to maximize their own throughput. This will come at the cost of the overall network quality of service. In this paper, we first analyze the default behavior of the IEEE 802.11ah protocol in terms of fairness. We then introduce various percentages of selfish stations and observe how the network’s quality of service in terms of fairness, throughput and packet-loss are affected. After establishing the inherent fairness of IEEE 802.11ah, we analyze applicability of two existing selfish behavior detection algorithms designed for IEEE 802.11 to the IEEE 802.11ah protocol. Due to their poor performance, we propose a new definition of ’selfish behavior’ specifically for IEEE 802.11ah, based on which we present a new algorithm for detecting selfish behavior. To combat selfish behavior and to create a better fairness, throughput and lower packet loss, we consequently present a novel mitigation algorithm called Selfish Stations Quarantine Punishment Algorithm (SSQPA). The proposed algorithm takes advantage of the RAW grouping to isolate selfish stations from the honest stations, thus mitigating the effect of the selfish behavior. SSQPA comes in two variants: honest stations-centric and network-centric. Our experimental results show that both variants can successfully mitigate selfish behavior effects in IEEE 802.11ah networks and either one can be used depending on the goal of the network.

The IEEE 802.11ah standard, marketed as Wi-Fi Halow, introduces a new channel access mechanism called the Restricted Access Window (RAW), aiming to provide connectivity for the Internet of Things (IoT) applications over broad areas. RAW aspires to alleviate the contention by splitting the channel access into periods and allocating each period to a given group of stations. This paper develops an analytical framework based on Probability and Renewal theories for modeling and evaluating an IEEE 802.11ah-based network implementing the RAW mechanism. We consider a Rayleigh-fading channel with the presence of the capture effect: a realistic scenario for IoT networks deployed in dense urban environments. Considering a single-hop scenario of stations randomly distributed around an Access Point (AP) and the power attenuation of transmitted packets, we model the channel access under capture awareness. As the RAW mechanism presents a time-limited contention for channel access, we develop a counting process that tracks transmissions up to the end of the contention time interval. Henceforth, we evaluate the network performance in terms of throughput. We meticulously validate the derived analytical results through extensive campaigns of discrete-event simulations. Our study evaluates the impact of different parameters on the overall performance, including the contention time, the number of stations, the number of groups, and the capture threshold. We henceforth study the impact of the capture effect on enhancing the network performance under the grouping feature introduced by the RAW mechanism. This work contributes to developing an analytical modeling framework to evaluate the performance of time-limited random access mechanisms accurately and can be an excellent basis for proposing practical scheduling algorithms to configure the RAW mechanism under non-ideal channel conditions.

The recent Wi-Fi HaLow technology focuses on adopting Wi-Fi for the needs of the Internet of Things. A key feature of Wi-Fi HaLow is the Restricted Access Window (RAW) mechanism that allows an access point to divide the sensors into groups and to assign each group to an exclusively reserved time interval where only the stations of a particular group can transmit. In this work, we study how to optimally configure RAW in a scenario with a high number of energy harvesting sensor devices. For such a scenario, we consider a problem of device grouping and develop a model of data transmission, which takes into account the peculiarities of channel access and the fact that the devices can run out of energy within the allocated intervals. We show how to use the developed model in order to determine the optimal duration of RAW intervals and the optimal number of groups that provide the required probability of data delivery and minimize the amount of consumed channel resources. The numerical results show that the optimal RAW configuration can reduce the amount of consumed channel resources by almost 50%.

Aside from vast deployment cost reduction, Industrial Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks (IWSAN) introduce a new level of industrial connectivity. Wireless connection of sensors and actuators in industrial environments not only enables wireless monitoring and actuation, it also enables coordination of production stages, connecting mobile robots and autonomous transport vehicles, as well as localization and tracking of assets. All these opportunities already inspired the development of many wireless technologies in an effort to fully enable Industry 4.0. However, different technologies significantly differ in performance and capabilities, none being capable of supporting all industrial use cases. When designing a network solution, one must be aware of the capabilities and the trade-offs that prospective technologies have. This paper evaluates the technologies potentially suitable for IWSAN solutions covering an entire industrial site with limited infrastructure cost and discusses their trade-offs in an effort to provide information for choosing the most suitable technology for the use case of interest. The comparative discussion presented in this paper aims to enable engineers to choose the most suitable wireless technology for their specific IWSAN deployment.

In 2016, the IEEE task group ah (TGah) released a new standard called IEEE 802.11ah, and industrial Internet of Things (IoT) is one of its typical use cases. The restricted access window (RAW) is one of the core MAC mechanisms of IEEE 802.11ah, which aims to address the collision problem in the dense wireless networks. However, in each RAW period, stations still need to contend for the channel by Distributed Coordination Function and Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (DCF/EDCA), which cannot meet the real-time requirements of most industrial applications. In this paper, we propose a channel-aware contention window adaption (CA-CWA) algorithm. The algorithm dynamically adapts the contention window based on the channel status with an external interference discrimination ability, and improves the real-time performance of the IEEE 802.11ah. To validate the real-time performance of CA-CWA, we compared CA-CWA with two other backoff algorithms with an NS-3 simulator. The results illustrate that CA-CWA has better performance than the other two algorithms in terms of packet loss rate and average delay. Compared with the other two algorithms, CA-CWA is able to support industrial applications with higher deadline constraints under the same channel conditions in IEEE 802.11ah.

Minimizing the energy consumption is one of the main challenges in internet of things (IoT) networks. Recently, the IEEE 802.11ah standard has been released as a new low-power Wi-Fi solution. It has several features, such as restricted access window (RAW) and target wake time (TWT), that promise to improve energy consumption. Specifically, in this article we study how to reduce the energy consumption thanks to RAW and TWT. In order to do this, we first present an analytical model that calculates the average energy consumption during a RAW slot. We compare these results to the IEEE 802.11ah simulator that we have extended for this scope with an energy life-cycle model for RAW and TWT. Then we study the energy consumption under different conditions using RAW. Finally, we evaluate the energy consumption using TWT. In the results, we show that the presented model has a maximum deviation from the simulations of 10% in case of capture effect (CE) and 7% without it. RAW always performs better than carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) when the traffic is higher and the usage of more slots has showed to have better energy efficiency, of up to the 76%, although also significantly increasing the latency. We will show how TWT outperforms pure RAW, by over 100%, when the transmission time is over 5 min.

The Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) play a significant role to alleviate the negative impacts of disasters by providing essential assistance to the rescue and evacuation operations in the affected areas. Then, the reliability of UAV connections and the accuracy of exchanged information are critical parameters. In this paper, we propose networking and security architecture for disaster surveillance UAV system. The networking scheme involves a two-tier cluster network based on IEEE 802.11ah, which can provide traffic isolation between the tiers. The security scheme guarantees the accuracy and availability of the collected information from the disaster area applying fingerprint features and data redundancy techniques; the proposed scheme also utilizes the lightweight Ring-Learning with Errors (Ring-LWE) crypto-system to assure the confidentiality of the transmitted data with low overhead.

Wi-Fi HaLow is an adaptation of the widespread Wi-Fi technology for the Internet of Things scenarios. Such scenarios often involve numerous wireless stations connected to a shared channel, and contention for the channel significantly affects the performance in such networks. Wi-Fi HaLow contains numerous solutions aimed at handling the contention between stations, two of which, namely, the Centralized Authentication Control (CAC) and the Distributed Authentication Control (DAC), address the contention reduction during the link set-up process. The link set-up process is special because the access point knows nothing of the connecting stations and its means of control of these stations are very limited. While DAC is self-adaptive, CAC does require an algorithm to dynamically control its parameters. Being just a framework, the Wi-Fi HaLow standard neither specifies such an algorithm nor recommends which protocol, CAC or DAC, is more suitable in a given situation. In this paper, we solve both issues by developing a novel robust close-to-optimal algorithm for CAC and compare CAC and DAC in a vast set of experiments.

This paper presents MFAM (Multiple Frequency Adaptive Model-based localization method), a novel model-based indoor localization method that is capable of using multiple wireless signal frequencies simultaneously. It utilizes indoor architectural model and physical properties of wireless signal propagation through objects and space. The motivation for developing multiple frequency localization method lies in the future Wi-Fi standards (e.g., 802.11ah) and the growing number of various wireless signals present in the buildings (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, etc.). Current indoor localization methods mostly rely on a single wireless signal type and often require many devices to achieve the necessary accuracy. MFAM utilizes multiple wireless signal types and improves the localization accuracy over the usage of a single frequency. It continuously monitors signal propagation through space and adapts the model according to the changes indoors. Using multiple signal sources lowers the required number of access points for a specific signal type while utilizing signals, already present in the indoors. Due to the unavailability of the 802.11ah hardware, we have evaluated proposed method with similar signals; we have used 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi and 868 MHz HomeMatic home automation signals. We have performed the evaluation in a modern two-bedroom apartment and measured mean localization error 2.0 to 2.3 m and median error of 2.0 to 2.2 m. Based on our evaluation results, using two different signals improves the localization accuracy by 18% in comparison to 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi-only approach. Additional signals would improve the accuracy even further. We have shown that MFAM provides better accuracy than competing methods, while having several advantages for real-world usage.

So far, existing sub-GHz wireless communication technologies focused on low-bandwidth, long-range communication with large numbers of constrained devices. Although these characteristics are fine for many Internet of Things (IoT) applications, more demanding application requirements could not be met and legacy Internet technologies such as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) could not be used. This has changed with the advent of the new IEEE 802.11ah Wi-Fi standard, which is much more suitable for reliable bidirectional communication and high-throughput applications over a wide area (up to 1 km). The standard offers great possibilities for network performance optimization through a number of physical- and link-layer configurable features. However, given that the optimal configuration parameters depend on traffic patterns, the standard does not dictate how to determine them. Such a large number of configuration options can lead to sub-optimal or even incorrect configurations. Therefore, we investigated how two key mechanisms, Restricted Access Window (RAW) grouping and Traffic Indication Map (TIM) segmentation, influence scalability, throughput, latency and energy efficiency in the presence of bidirectional TCP/IP traffic. We considered both high-throughput video streaming traffic and large-scale reliable sensing traffic and investigated TCP behavior in both scenarios when the link layer introduces long delays. This article presents the relations between attainable throughput per station and attainable number of stations, as well as the influence of RAW, TIM and TCP parameters on both. We found that up to 20 continuously streaming IP-cameras can be reliably connected via IEEE 802.11ah with a maximum average data rate of 160 kbps, whereas 10 IP-cameras can achieve average data rates of up to 255 kbps over 200 m. Up to 6960 stations transmitting every 60 s can be connected over 1 km with no lost packets. The presented results enable the fine tuning of RAW and TIM parameters for throughput-demanding reliable applications (i.e., video streaming, firmware updates) on one hand, and very dense low-throughput reliable networks with bidirectional traffic on the other hand.

Many Internet of Things (IoT) services utilize an IoT access network to connect small devices with remote servers. They can share an access network with standard communication technology, such as IEEE 802.11ah. However, an authentication and key management (AKM) mechanism for resource constrained IoT devices using IEEE 802.11ah has not been proposed as yet. We therefore propose a new AKM mechanism for an IoT access network, which is based on IEEE 802.11 key management with the IEEE 802.1X authentication mechanism. The proposed AKM mechanism does not require any pre-configured security information between the access network domain and the IoT service domain. It considers the resource constraints of IoT devices, allowing IoT devices to delegate the burden of AKM processes to a powerful agent. The agent has sufficient power to support various authentication methods for the access point, and it performs cryptographic functions for the IoT devices. Performance analysis shows that the proposed mechanism greatly reduces computation costs, network costs, and memory usage of the resource-constrained IoT device as compared to the existing IEEE 802.11 Key Management with the IEEE 802.1X authentication mechanism.

IEEE 802.11ah, marketed as Wi-Fi HaLow, extends Wi-Fi to the sub-1 GHz spectrum. Through a number of physical layer (PHY) and media access control (MAC) optimizations, it aims to bring greatly increased range, energy-efficiency, and scalability. This makes 802.11ah the perfect candidate for providing connectivity to Internet of Things (IoT) devices. One of these new features, referred to as the Restricted Access Window (RAW), focuses on improving scalability in highly dense deployments. RAW divides stations into groups and reduces contention and collisions by only allowing channel access to one group at a time. However, the standard does not dictate how to determine the optimal RAW grouping parameters. The optimal parameters depend on the current network conditions, and it has been shown that incorrect configuration severely impacts throughput, latency and energy efficiency. In this paper, we propose a traffic-adaptive RAW optimization algorithm (TAROA) to adapt the RAW parameters in real time based on the current traffic conditions, optimized for sensor networks in which each sensor transmits packets with a certain (predictable) frequency and may change the transmission frequency over time. The TAROA algorithm is executed at each target beacon transmission time (TBTT), and it first estimates the packet transmission interval of each station only based on packet transmission information obtained by access point (AP) during the last beacon interval. Then, TAROA determines the RAW parameters and assigns stations to RAW slots based on this estimated transmission frequency. The simulation results show that, compared to enhanced distributed channel access/distributed coordination function (EDCA/DCF), the TAROA algorithm can highly improve the performance of IEEE 802.11ah dense networks in terms of throughput, especially when hidden nodes exist, although it does not always achieve better latency performance. This paper contributes with a practical approach to optimizing RAW grouping under dynamic traffic in real time, which is a major leap towards applying RAW mechanism in real-life IoT networks.