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The urban heat island (UHI) effect is one of the most prominent surface climate changes driven by human activities. This study examines the UHI characteristics and influencing factors in the Southern Xinjiang urban agglomeration using MODIS satellite data combined with observational datasets. Our results reveal a significant increase in impervious surfaces in the region between 1995 and 2015, with the most rapid expansion occurring from 2010 to 2015. This urban expansion is the primary driver of changes in UHI intensity. The analysis from 2000 to 2015 shows substantial spatial variation in UHI effects across cities. Hotan recorded the highest annual average daytime UHI intensity of 3.7 °C, while Aksu exhibited the lowest at approximately 1.6 °C. Daytime UHI intensity generally increased during the study period, with the highest intensities observed in the summer. However, nighttime UHI trends varied across cities, with most showing an increase in intensity. Temperature, precipitation, and aerosol optical depth (AOD) were identified as the main factors influencing annual average daytime UHI intensity, while PM10 concentration showed a weak and inconsistent correlation with UHI intensity, varying by city and season.

Dust and air pollution events are increasingly occurring around the Taklimakan Desert in southern Xinjiang and in the urban areas of northern Xinjiang. Predicting such events is crucial for the advancement, growth, and prosperity of communities. This study evaluated a dust and air pollution forecasting system based on the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with the China Meteorological Administration Chemistry Environment (WRF-CUACE) model using ground and satellite observations. The results showed that the forecasting system accurately predicted the formation, development, and termination of dust events. It demonstrated good capability for predicting the evolution and spatial distribution of dust storms, although it overestimated dust intensity. Specifically, the correlation coefficient (R) between simulated and observed PM10 was up to 0.85 with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 721.36 µg·m−3 during dust storm periods. During air pollution events, the forecasting system displayed notable variations in predictive accuracy across various urban areas. The simulated trends of PM2.5 and the Air Quality Index (AQI) closely aligned with the actual observations in Ürümqi. The R for simulated and observed PM2.5 concentrations at 24 and 48 h intervals were 0.60 and 0.54, respectively, with MAEs of 28.92 µg·m−3 and 29.10 µg·m−3, respectively. The correlation coefficients for simulated and observed AQIs at 24 and 48 h intervals were 0.79 and 0.70, respectively, with MAEs of 24.21 and 27.56, respectively. The evolution of the simulated PM10 was consistent with observations despite relatively high concentrations. The simulated PM2.5 concentrations in Changji and Shihezi were notably lower than those observed, resulting in a lower AQI. For PM10, the simulation–observation error was relatively small; however, the trends were inconsistent. Future research should focus on optimizing model parameterization schemes and emission source data.

Coupling solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) with gross primary productivity (GPP) for ecological function integration research presents numerous uncertainties, especially in ecologically fragile and climate-sensitive arid regions. Therefore, evaluating the suitability of SIF data for estimating GPP and the feasibility of improving its accuracy in the northern region of Xinjiang is of profound significance for revealing the spatial distribution patterns of GPP and the strong coupling relationship between GPP and SIF in arid regions, achieving the goal of “carbon neutrality” in arid regions. This study is based on multisource SIF satellite data and GPP observation data from sites in three typical ecosystems (cultivated and farmlands, pasture grasslands, and desert vegetation). Two precision improvement methods (canopy and linear) are used to couple multiple indicators to determine the suitability of multisource SIF data for GPP estimation and the operability of accuracy improvement methods in arid regions reveal the spatial characteristics of SIF (GPP). The results indicate the following. (1) The interannual variation of GPP shows an inverted “U” shape, with peaks values in June and July. The cultivated and farmland areas have the highest peak value among the sites (0.35 gC/m2/month). (2) The overall suitability ranking of multisource SIF satellite products for GPP estimation in arid regions is RTSIF > CSIF > SIF_OCO2_005 > GOSIF. RTSIF shows better suitability in the pasture grassland and cultivated and farmland areas (R2 values of 0.85 and 0.84, respectively). (3) The canopy method is suitable for areas with a high leaf area proportion (R2 improvement range: 0.05–0.06), while the linear method is applicable across different surface types (R2 improvement range: 0.01–0.13). However, the improvement effect of the linear method is relatively weaker in areas with high vegetation cover. (4) Combining land use data, the overall improvement of SIF (GPP) is approximately 0.11%, and the peak values of its are mainly distributed in the northern and southern slopes of the Tianshan Mountains, while the low values are primarily found in the Gurbantunggut Desert. The annual mean value of SIF (GPP) is about 0.13 mW/m2/nm/sr. This paper elucidates the applicability of SIF for GPP estimation and the feasibility of improving its accuracy, laying the theoretical foundation for the spatiotemporal coupling study of GPP and SIF in an arid region, and providing practical evidence for achieving carbon neutrality goals.

Intensive economic and human activities present challenges to the carbon storage capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in arid regions that are sensitive to climate change and ecologically fragile. Therefore, accurately estimating and simulating future changes in carbon stocks on the northern slope economic belt of Tianshan Mountains (NSEBTM) holds great significance for maintaining ecosystem stability, achieving high-quality development of the economic belt, and realizing the goal of “carbon neutrality” by 2050. This study examines the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of the NSEBTM carbon stocks in arid regions from 1990 to 2050, utilizing a combination of multi-source data and integrating the Patch-generating Land use Simulation (PLUS) and Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) models. Additionally, an attribution analysis of carbon stock changes is conducted by leveraging land use data. The findings demonstrate that (1) the NSEBTM predominantly consists of underutilized land, accounting for more than 60% of the total land area in the NSEBTM. Unused land, grassland, and water bodies exhibit a declining trend over time, while other forms of land use demonstrate an increasing trend. (2) Grassland serves as the primary reservoir for carbon storage in the NSEBTM, with grassland degradation being the leading cause of carbon loss amounting to 102.35 t over the past three decades. (3) Under the ecological conservation scenario for 2050 compared to the natural development scenario, there was a net increase in carbon storage by 12.34 t; however, under the economic development scenario compared to the natural development scenario, there was a decrease in carbon storage by 25.88 t. By quantitatively evaluating the land use change in the NSEBTM and its impact on carbon storage in the past and projected for the next 30 years, this paper provides scientific references and precise data support for the territorial and spatial decision making of the NSEBTM, thereby facilitating the achievement of “carbon neutrality” goals.

Based on data from the Gurbantunggut Desert, the largest fixed/semi-fixed desert in China, and ERA5-Land reanalysis data, the long-term variations and spatial surface heat source (SHS) differences in the Gurbantunggut Desert are discussed herein. The results show the following: (1) The hourly SHS at the Kelameili station during the 2013–2021 period was a weak heat source at night; contrastingly, it was a strong heat source during the day. The duration of the hourly SHS increased gradually from January to July, but it decreased gradually from July to December. The daily SHS showed obvious seasonal variation, reaching the maximum in summer and the minimum in winter. The ERA5-Land reanalysis can reproduce all the variation characteristics of the SHS well. (2) The climatology (i.e., multi-year mean) of the monthly SHS intensity was lower than 50 W/m2 during the January–March and September–December periods in the Gurbantunggut Desert, indicating a weak heat source. On the other hand, the climatology recorded in April–August was higher than 50 W/m2, with a strong heat source. From the perspective of spatial distribution, the eastern and western regions of the Gurbantunggut Desert show strong heat sources, while the central region shows weak heat sources. The spatial distribution of the first and second modes of the empirical orthogonal function (EOF) decomposition reflected the consistent spatial variability and a north–south (or east–west) polarity variation of the monthly SHS in the Gurbantunggut Desert, respectively. (3) The yearly SHS showed negative anomalies during the 1950–1954, 1964–1982 and 2004–2015 periods, and positive anomalies during the 1955–1963, 1983–2003 and 2016–2021 periods in the Gurbantunggut Desert. Additionally, the time series of the SHS anomalies was positively correlated with the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) index. During the negative IPO phase, the yearly SHS showed a negative anomaly in the Gurbantunggut Desert, while the yearly SHS showed a positive anomaly during the positive IPO phase in most regions of the Gurbantunggut Desert.

Urban heat islands have garnered significant attention due to their potential impact on human life. Previous studies on urban heat islands have focused on characterizing temporal and spatial variations over longer periods of time. In this study, we investigated the urban heat island (UHI) in Birmingham from September 2013 to August 2014 using higher temporal resolution SEVIRI satellite surface temperature data along with data from the Birmingham Urban Climate Laboratory (BUCL) meteorological station and the UK Meteorological Office meteorological station. Our aim was to characterize the diurnal variations in the surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) and canopy urban heat island intensity (CUHII) and to explore their relationship under the influence of three factors (day/nighttime, season, and wind speed) using regression analysis. Our findings reveal that SUHII and CUHII exhibit relatively stable patterns at night but vary significantly during the day with opposite diurnal trends. In addition, SUHII and CUHII were more variable in spring and summer but less variable in winter. During the nighttime, SUHII represents CUHII with high confidence, especially during spring and summer, but less so during the cold season. In addition, SUHII represents CUHII with greater confidence under low-wind conditions. This study deepens our understanding of the diurnal dynamics of urban heat islands and the influence of atmospheric conditions on the relationship between surface and canopy heat islands in urban areas. The results of this study can be used for heat island studies in cities that lack high-precision observation networks and to guide sustainable urban development.

Carbon neutrality is an important target in China’s efforts to combat the climate crisis. The implementation of carbon neutrality requires high crop yields in farmland ecosystems of arid regions. However, the responses of farmland ecosystems to environmental changes and their effects on the conversion and intensity of carbon sources/sinks within farmlands in arid regions remain unclear, which limits carbon sequestration. In this study, we used a set of eddy covariance systems to observe carbon and water fluxes in cotton and spring maize, two typical crops in arid regions of Northern Xinjiang in China. The carbon and water exchange and water use efficiency (WUE) of cotton and spring maize were evaluated over the entire growth cycle with respect to changes in the environment. Our results show that the carbon sequestration capacity of farmland ecosystems in arid regions is undeniable and is strongly influenced by the growth and development of plants. Spring maize, as a representative of C4 plants, exhibited a 58.4% higher carbon sequestration efficiency than cotton, a C3 plant, and they both reached their carbon sequestration efficiency peak in July. Throughout the growth period, temperature, net surface radiation, and saturated vapor pressure differences (VPD) significantly affected the carbon sequestration capacity and WUE of both crops. Optimal temperatures can maximize the carbon sequestration efficiency of cotton and spring maize; for cotton, they are 20–25 °C, and for spring maize, they are 22–27 °C, respectively. In addition, it is recommended that spring maize be harvested at the end of July when it meets the harvesting standards for silage feed and achieves the maximum carbon sequestration. Afterward, winter crops should be planted to maximize the yield and improve the carbon sequestration capacity of farmlands.

Grassland ecosystems are an important component of global terrestrial ecosystems and play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. Therefore, it is important to study the carbon dioxide (CO2) process in the Middle Tien Shan grassland ecosystem, which can be regarded as a typical representative of the mountain grasslands in Xinjiang. Eddy covariance (EC) and the global carbon fluxes dataset (GCFD) were utilized to continuously monitor the Middle Tien Shan grassland ecosystem in Xinjiang throughout the 2018 growing season. The findings revealed notable daily and monthly fluctuations in net ecosystem exchange (NEE), gross primary productivity (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (Reco). On a daily basis, there was net absorption of CO2 during the day and net emission during the night. The grassland acted as a carbon sink from 6:00 to 18:00 and as a carbon source for the remaining hours of the day. On a monthly scale, June and July served as carbon sinks, whereas the other months acted as carbon sources. The accumulated NEE, GPP, and Reco during the growing season were −329.49 g C m−2, 779.04 g C m−2, and 449.55 g C m−2, respectively. On the half-hourly and daily scales, soil temperature (Ts) was the main contributor to CO2 fluxes and had the greatest influence on the variations in CO2 fluxes. Additionally, air temperature (Ta) showed a strong correlation with CO2 fluxes. The grassland ecosystems exhibited the strongest CO2 uptake, reaching its peak at soil temperatures of 25 °C. Moreover, as the air temperatures rose above 15 °C, there was a gradual decrease in NEE, while CO2 uptake increased. The applicability of GCFD data is good in the grassland ecosystem of the Middle Tien Shan Mountains, with correlations of 0.59, 0.81, and 0.73 for NEE, GPP, and Reco, respectively, compared to field observations. In terms of remote sensing spatial distribution, the Middle Tien Shan grassland ecosystem exhibits a carbon sink phenomenon.

The exchange of energy between the land surface and atmosphere is dependent upon crucial parameters, including surface roughness, emissivity, bulk transfer coefficients for momentum (CD) and heat (CH). These parameters are calculated through site observation data and remote sensing data. The following conclusions are drawn: (1) the aerodynamic roughness of the Gurbantunggut Desert measures 1.1 × 10−2 m, which is influenced by the varying conditions of the underlying surface. The roughness decreases as wind speed increases and is seen to be directly proportional to the growth of vegetation. From April to June, the aerodynamic roughness increases with increasing vegetation cover, but begins to gradually decrease after July. Spatially, the middle regions show higher roughness values than the eastern and western areas. In the central part of the desert, the roughness is between 2.37 × 10−2 m and 2.46 × 10−2 m from April to November. The northwest and northeast regions measure 1.41 × 10−2 m–2.04 × 10−2 m and 1.53 × 10−2 m–2.39 × 10−2 m, respectively. (2) The surface emissivity is 0.93, and it varies depending on the snow and vegetation present in the underlying area. (3) CD and CH exhibit an inverse relationship with wind speed. When wind speed falls below 6 m/s, the CD declines rapidly as wind speed increases. In contrast, once wind speed surpasses 6 m/s, the propensity for the CD to decrease with increasing wind speed slows down and approaches stability.

Wind profile light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is an important tool for observing features within the atmospheric boundary layer. Observations of the wind field and boundary layer height from coherent Doppler wind LiDARs (CDWLs) under sandy and dusty weather conditions were evaluated using observations from two CDWLs and one GTS radio sounding located at the northern edge of the Tibetan plateau from 1 May to 30 August 2021. The results showed that CDWL has good applicability in reproducing wind fields in dust, precipitation, and in clear-sky conditions, and that it is superior to the v wind field for real measurements of the u wind fields. In terms of the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH), the validity of the inversion of PBLH in dusty weather was higher than that under clear-sky conditions. It was found that the PBLH retrieved by the CDWL at 20:00 (BJT) was better than that at 08:00 (BJT). The diurnal variation amplitude of the PBLH before the occurrence of a sandstorm was larger than the diurnal variation amplitude of the PBLH occurring during a sandstorm.

The emission, transport, and deposition of dust are frequently the focus of dust aerosol studies. However, owing to limited observation data, few studies have examined the relationships between the key parameters of dust transport, especially in typical dust source areas. Therefore, investigating the relationship between near-surface horizontal dust fluxes and dust depositions in typical desert source areas can further help us to understand the movement and transport patterns of dust aerosols. Based on observational experiments on two key transport parameters, this study focused on the quantitative relationship between the horizontal dust flux (Q) and dust deposition (D). A 13-month long dust sample collection experiment was conducted from August 2017 to August 2018 at Xiaotang Station (hereafter XT,40°48′ N, 84°18′ E) and Tazhong Station (hereafter TZ, 39°00′ N, 83°40′ E). The results show that the observed D and Q peaks coincided with periods of high dust storm incidence, with the greatest accumulation observed in spring. Moreover, both Q and D decreased with increasing height in XT, and this phenomenon remained on a monthly scale. In contrast, no clear decreasing pattern in Q and D with increasing height was observed in TZ. Additionally, relatively coarse particles, primarily from local sources, dominated dust depositions in both locations. The proportion of deposited dust particles with a size D and Q had a significantly positive linear correlation in XT; however, no significant correlation was observed in TZ. Analysis of the wind dynamics and surface dust particle size indicated that topographic differences between the two stations caused these differences in correlation.

Dust aerosols persistently affect nearly all landscapes worldwide, and the saltation activity caused by dusty weather (e.g., dust days) releases considerable amounts of aerosol into the atmosphere. Nevertheless, dust-induced saltation activity may also occur on non-dust days. To date, few studies have investigated the saltation activity characteristics on non-dust days. Moreover, the contribution of non-dust days to the total saltation activity remains ambiguous. This study comprehensively investigates the characteristics of saltation activity on non-dust days. Specifically, we analyze the influence of the saltation activity of non-dust days on dust aerosols by utilizing saltation, atmospheric, soil, dust aerosol (i.e., PM10 and aerosol optical depth), and weather record data obtained from the Taklimakan Desert, China, between 2008 and 2010. Our results show that lower temperature, vapor pressure, and soil moisture on non-dust days reduces the saltation threshold velocity (5.9 m/s) more compared to on dust days (6.5 m/s). Furthermore, regarding wind speed, relatively strong monthly saltation activity occurs from March to August, and daily saltation activity occurs from 9:00 to 16:00. Although non-dust days only contribute 18.5% and 7.7% to saltation time and saltation count, respectively, both significantly influence the dust aerosols. Therefore, the effect of saltation activity on non-dust days cannot be undervalued, particularly while performing dust aerosol studies.

Based on observations from the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) together with an environmental particulate matter analyzer (Grimm-180) and Global Positioning System (GPS) sounding balloons, the vertical structure of dust with different particle sizes was explored over the Taklimakan Desert (TD) during an intensive observation from 1 July 2021 to 31 July 2021. The power functions were fitted between the particle counts and particle sizes, indicating negative correlations with an R2 higher than 0.99 under different dust pollution conditions in Tazhong (TZ). The dust concentrations show a sharp vertical increase over the TD during dust pollution; however, more particles with larger sizes are entrained into the air in TZ compared with Minfeng (MF). The total solar radiation during dust pollution days is significantly weakened, accompanied by major modifications in the temperature stratification, which were characterized by low-level cooling (with −2.71 K mean intensity) and high-level heating (with +0.70 K mean intensity). On clear days, the average convective boundary layer (CBL) heights at the TZ and MF are approximately 3.94 and 2.84 km, respectively, and the average stable boundary layer (SBL) height at the TZ and MF are approximately 0.19 and 0.14 km, respectively. With the increasing dust pollution level, the CBL height decreases rapidly while the SBL height shows the opposite trend. The unique ultra-high atmospheric boundary layer structure in daytime provides beneficial conditions for the suspension and vertical transportation of dust over TD. Moreover, a negative correlation between the CBL height and near-surface PM10/PM2.5/PM1.0 concentration in TD is revealed by power function fittings.

A special topography and ultra-high atmospheric boundary layer conditions in the Tarim Basin (TB) lead to the unique spatial–temporal distribution characteristics of dust aerosols. A typical dust storm with persistent floating dust over the TB from 27 April to 1 May 2015 was used to investigate the characteristics of the dust radiative effect using the Weather Research and Forecasting Model with Chemistry (WRF-Chem). Based on reasonable evaluations involving in situ sounding observations, as well as remotely sensed MODIS observations of meteorology, dust aerosols, and the ultra-high atmospheric boundary layer, the simulation characterized the complete characteristics of the dust direct radiative effect (DDRE) during the dust storm outbreak stage and persistent floating dust stage over the TB. During the daytime, the shortwave (SW) radiative effect heated the atmosphere and cooled the land surface (SUR), whereas the longwave (LW) radiative effect had the opposite effect on the TB. Regarding low-level dust, the LW radiative effect was greater than the SW DDRE in the atmosphere, while for high-level dust the situation was reversed. During the nighttime, the LW DDRE at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), at the SUR, and in the atmosphere was less than that during the daytime, when the DDRE at the SUR was the most significant. In contrast to the daytime, the near-surface dust aerosols exerted an LW warming effect in the atmosphere during the nighttime; however, the dust LW radiative effect had a cooling effect from above a 100 m altitude until the top of the dust layer. In contrast, the DDRE heating rate peaked at the top of the dust layer within the TB. The event-averaged net DDRE was 0.53, −5.90, and 6.43 W m−2 at the TOA, at the SUR, and in the atmosphere over the TB, respectively. The dust SW radiative effect was stronger than the dust L4W radiative effect over the TB at the SUR and in the atmosphere. Moreover, the DDRE at the TOA was weaker than that at the SUR. Overall, the study revealed noteworthy radiative effect features of dust aerosols during typical dust storms with persistent floating dust over the TB.

Solar radiation is the most important source of energy on the Earth. The Gobi area in the eastern Xinjiang region, due to its geographic location and climate characteristics, has abundant solar energy resources. In order to provide detailed scientific data supporting solar energy development in this area, we used ground-based data to evaluate the applicability of the five reanalysis data sources: the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES), the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis version 5 (ERA5), the Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications version 2 (MERRA2), and the Japanese 55-year Reanalysis (JRA-55). Our results indicated that the CERES data show underestimated short-wave radiation and overestimated long-wave radiation. The correlation coefficients (r) between the ERA5 dataset and the net long-wave and short-wave radiation in observation were 0.92 and 0.91, respectively, and the r between the MERRA2 dataset and the net long-wave and short-wave radiation in observation were both 0.88. The JRA-55 dataset overestimated the long-wave radiation flux and underestimated the short-wave radiation flux. The clearness index (kt) of all datasets was poor during autumn and winter, the ERA5 estimates were cloudy when the actual condition was sunny, while the JRA-55 estimates were sunny when the actual condition was cloudy. Overall, the radiation flux in the ERA5 dataset had the highest applicability in the Gobi region.

This research analyzed the spatiotemporal patterns of drought in Xinjiang (northwestern China) between 1961 and 2015 using the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI). Furthermore, the correlations between Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)/El Niño⁻Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and drought were explored. The results suggested an obvious trend toward aggravated drought, with a significant inflection point in 1997, after which the frequency of drought increased sharply. Spatially, the increase in drought occurred largely in southern and eastern Xinjiang, where occurrences of moderate and extreme drought have become more frequent during the last two decades, whereas northwestern Xinjiang and the Pamir Plateau showed wetting trends. Empirical orthogonal function analysis (EOF) of drought patterns showed a north⁻south antiphase and an east⁻west antiphase distribution. The positive (negative) phase of the AMO was related to increased (decreased) drought in Xinjiang, particularly after 1997. During a warm phase (El Niño), major droughts occurred over northern Xinjiang, but they lagged by 12 months. However, not all El Niño and La Niña events were responsible for drought events in northern Xinjiang during this period, and other drivers remain to be identified. This study suggests the possibility of AMO and ENSO links to drought in Xinjiang, but further analysis is needed to better understand such mechanisms.

An observational data set of the year 2010 at a site in the northern marginal zone of the Taklimakan Desert (TD) was used to analyse the key surface parameters in land⁻atmospheric interactions in the desert climate of northwest China. We found that the surface albedo (α) and emissivity (ε) were 0.27 and 0.91, respectively, which were consistent with the values obtained based on observations in the hinterland of the TD as well as being similar to the dry parts of the Great Basin desert in North America, where they were comparable to the α and ε values retrieved from remote sensing products. Peak frequency value of z0m was 5.858 × 10−3 m, which was similar to the Mojave Desert, Peruvian desert, Sonoran Desert, HEIFE (Heihe region) Desert, and Badain Jaran Desert. The peak frequency value of z0h was 1.965 × 10−4 m, which was different from those obtained in the hinterland of the TD. The average annual value of excess resistance to heat transfer (kB−1) was 2.5, which was different from those obtained in the HEIFE Gobi and desert, but they were similar to those determined for the Qinghai⁻Tibetan Plateau and HAPEX-Sahel. Both z0m and z0h varied less diurnally but notably seasonally, and kB−1 exhibited weak diurnal and seasonal variations. We also found that z0m was strongly influenced by the local wind direction. There were many undulating sand dunes in the prevailing wind and opposite to the prevailing wind, which were consistent with the directions of the peak z0m value. The mean values calculated over 24 h for Cd and Ch were 6.34 × 10−3 and 5.96 × 10−3, respectively, which were larger than in the Gobi area, hinterland of the TD and semiarid areas, but similar to HEIFE desert. Under the normal prevailing (NNE⁻ESE) wind, the mean bulk transfer coefficient Cd and Ch were of the same order of magnitude as expected based on similarity theory. Using the data obtained under different wind directions, we determined the relationships between Cd, Ch, the wind speed U, and stability parameter z/L, and the results were different. Cd and Ch decreased rapidly as the wind speed dropped below 3.0 m s−1 and their minimum values reached around 1⁻2 m s−1. It should also be noted that the ε values estimated using the sensible heat flux (H) were better compared with those produced using other estimation methods.

To study the force and deformation characteristics of a full-section immersed tube with post-pouring belt under the action of hydration reaction, the numerical model of full-section immersed tube with post-pouring belt was established by using MIDAS FEA (V2013) finite element analysis software, and the stress, cracking and deformation of the segment of the post-pouring belt were analyzed. The results show that under the action of hydration reaction, the concrete reaches the highest temperature at about 36 h, which appears at the roof of the tube gallery in the immersed tube, and the bottom steel plate expands rapidly initially, and subsequently shrinks gradually. The outer surface of the post-pouring segment concrete is stretched, and the internal region is under pressure, and as the internal temperature of the concrete cools down, the bottom plate starts to contract. The steel bar connection between the post-pouring belt and the surrounding immersed tube segment will increase the risk of cracking in the bottom plate of the full-section immersed tube. When only the steel bars in the bottom plate are connected, the maximum tensile stress of the immersed tube bottom plate will increase by 16.0% compared to the no connection case. If the steel bars of the immersed tube’s web and roof are also connected, the maximum tensile stress will increase by over 20%. By connecting the steel bars, the peripheral tube section plays a certain role in limiting the transverse deformation of the post-pouring belt and constraining the reinforcement of the bottom plate and web (and roof) can reduce the transverse deformation of the immersed tube to a great extent, reducing the proportion by over 10%.