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In rational decision-making processes, the information interaction among individual robots is a critical factor influencing system stability. We establish a game-theoretic model based on mutual information to address division of labor decision-making and stability issues arising from differential information interaction among swarm robots. Firstly, a mutual information model is employed to measure the information interaction among robots and analyze its influence on the behavior of individual robots. Secondly, employing the Cournot model and the Stackelberg model, we model the diverse decision-making behaviors of swarm robots influenced by discrepancies in mutual information. The intricate decision dynamics exhibited by the system under the disparity mutual information values during the game process, along with the stability of Nash equilibrium points, are analyzed. Finally, dynamic complexity simulations of the game models are simulated under the disparity mutual information values: (1) When ν1 of the game model varies within a certain range, the Nash equilibrium point loses stability and enters a chaotic state. (2) As I(X;Y) increases, the decision-making pattern of robots transitions gradually from the Cournot game to the Stackelberg game. Concurrently, the sensitivity of swarm robotics systems to changes in decision parameter decreases, reducing the likelihood of the system entering a chaotic state.

Self-assembly formation is a key research topic for realizing practical applications in swarm robotics. Due to its inherent complexity, designing high-performance self-assembly formation strategies and proposing corresponding macroscopic models remain formidable challenges and present an open research frontier. Taking inspiration from crystallization, this paper introduces a distributed self-assembly formation strategy by defining free, moving, growing, and solid states for robots. Robots in these states can spontaneously organize into user-specified two-dimensional shape formations with lattice structures through local interactions and communications. To address the challenges posed by complex spatial structures in modeling a macroscopic model, this work introduces the structural features estimation method. Subsequently, a corresponding non-spatial macroscopic model is developed to predict and analyze the self-assembly behavior, employing the proposed estimation method and a stock and flow diagram. Real-robot experiments and simulations validate the flexibility, scalability, and high efficiency of the proposed self-assembly formation strategy. Moreover, extensive experimental and simulation results demonstrate the model’s accuracy in predicting the self-assembly process under different conditions. Model-based analysis indicates that the proposed self-assembly formation strategy can fully utilize the performance of individual robots and exhibits strong self-stability.

Unanimous action to achieve specific goals is crucial for the success of a robotic swarm. This requires clearly defined roles and precise communication between the robots of a swarm. An optimized task allocation algorithm defines the mechanism and logistics of decision-making that enable the robotic swarm to achieve such common goals. With more nodes, the traffic of messages that are required to communicate inside the swarm relatively increases to maintain decentralization. Increased traffic eliminates real-time capabilities, which is an essential aspect of a swarm system. The aim of this research is to reduce execution time while retaining efficient power consumption rates. In this research, two novel decentralized swarm communication algorithms are proposed, namely Clustered Dynamic Task Allocation–Centralized Loop (CDTA-CL) and Clustered Dynamic Task Allocation–Dual Loop (CDTA-DL), both inspired by the Clustered Dynamic Task Allocation (CDTA) algorithm. Moreover, a simulation tool was developed to simulate different swarm-clustered communication algorithms in order to calculate the total communication time and consumed power. The results of testing the proposed CDTA-DL and CDTA-CL against the CDTA attest that the proposed algorithm consumes substantially less time. Both CDTA-DL and CDTA-CL have achieved a significant speedup of 75.976% and 54.4% over CDTA, respectively.

In the swiftly advancing field of swarm robotics and unmanned aerial vehicles, precise and effective testing methods are essential. This article explores the crucial role of software-in-the-loop (SITL) simulations in developing, testing, and validating drone swarm control algorithms. Such simulations play a crucial role in reproducing real-world operational scenarios. Additionally, they can (regardless of the type of application) accelerate the development process, reduce operational risks, and ensure the consistent performance of drone swarms. Our study demonstrates that different geometrical arrangements of drone swarms require flexible control strategies. The leader-based control model facilitates coherent movement and enhanced coordination. Addressing various issues such as communication delays and inaccuracies in positioning is essential here. These shortcomings underscore the value of improved approaches to collision avoidance. The research described in this article focused on the dynamics of drone swarms in a simulated context and emphasized their operational efficiency and adaptability in various scenarios. Advanced simulation tools were utilized to analyze the interaction, communication, and adaptability of autonomous units. The presented results indicate that the arrangement of drones significantly affects their coordination and collision avoidance capabilities. They also underscore the importance of control systems that can adapt to various situations. The impact of communication delays and errors in positioning systems on the required distance between drones in a grid structure is also presented. This article assesses the impact of different levels of GPS accuracy and communication delays on the coordination of group movement and collision avoidance capabilities.

Efficiently searching for multiple targets in complex environments with limited perception and computational capabilities is challenging for multiple robots, which can coordinate their actions indirectly through their environment. In this context, swarm intelligence has been a source of inspiration for addressing multi-target search problems in the literature. So far, several algorithms have been proposed for solving such a problem, and in this study, we propose two novel multi-target search algorithms inspired by the Firefly algorithm. Unlike the conventional Firefly algorithm, where light is an attractor, light represents a negative effect in our proposed algorithms. Upon discovering targets, robots emit light to repel other robots from that region. This repulsive behavior is intended to achieve several objectives: (1) partitioning the search space among different robots, (2) expanding the search region by avoiding areas already explored, and (3) preventing congestion among robots. The proposed algorithms, named Global Lawnmower Firefly Algorithm (GLFA) and Random Bounce Firefly Algorithm (RBFA), integrate inverse light-based behavior with two random walks: random bounce and global lawnmower. These algorithms were implemented and evaluated using the ArGOS simulator, demonstrating promising performance compared to existing approaches.

Prey-predator interactions play a pivotal role in elucidating the evolution and adaptation of various organism’s traits. Numerous approaches have been employed to study the dynamics of prey-predator interaction systems, with agent-based methodologies gaining popularity. However, existing agent-based models are limited in their ability to handle multi-modal interactions, which are believed to be crucial for understanding living organisms. Conversely, prevailing prey-predator integration studies often rely on mathematical models and computer simulations, neglecting real-world constraints and noise. These elusive attributes, challenging to model, can lead to emergent behaviors and embodied intelligence. To bridge these gaps, our study designs and implements a prey-predator interaction scenario that incorporates visual and olfactory sensory cues not only in computer simulations but also in a real multi-robot system. Observed emergent spatial-temporal dynamics demonstrate successful transitioning of investigating prey-predator interactions from virtual simulations to the tangible world. It highlights the potential of multi-robotics approaches for studying prey-predator interactions and lays the groundwork for future investigations involving multi-modal sensory processing while considering real-world constraints.

The area coverage problem solution is one of the vital research areas which can benefit from swarm robotics. The greatest challenge to the swarm robotics system is to complete the task of covering an area effectively. Many domains where area coverage is essential include exploration, surveillance, mapping, foraging, and several other applications. This paper introduces a survey of swarm robotics in area coverage research papers from 2015 to 2022 regarding the algorithms and methods used, hardware, and applications in this domain. Different types of algorithms and hardware were dealt with and analysed; according to the analysis, the characteristics and advantages of each of them were identified, and we determined their suitability for different applications in covering the area for many goals. This study demonstrates that naturally inspired algorithms have the most significant role in swarm robotics for area coverage compared to other techniques. In addition, modern hardware has more capabilities suitable for supporting swarm robotics to cover an area, even if the environment is complex and contains static or dynamic obstacles.

Mobile multi-robot systems are well suited for gas leak localization in challenging environments. They offer inherent advantages such as redundancy, scalability, and resilience to hazardous environments, all while enabling autonomous operation, which is key to efficient swarm exploration. To efficiently localize gas sources using concentration measurements, robots need to seek out informative sampling locations. For this, domain knowledge needs to be incorporated into their exploration strategy. We achieve this by means of partial differential equations incorporated into a probabilistic gas dispersion model that is used to generate a spatial uncertainty map of process parameters. Previously, we presented a potential-field-control approach for navigation based on this map. We build upon this work by considering a more realistic gas dispersion model, now taking into account the mechanism of advection, and dynamics of the gas concentration field. The proposed extension is evaluated through extensive simulations. We find that introducing fluctuations in the wind direction makes source localization a fundamentally harder problem to solve. Nevertheless, the proposed approach can recover the gas source distribution and compete with a systematic sampling strategy. The estimator we present in this work is able to robustly recover source candidates within only a few seconds. Larger swarms are able to reduce total uncertainty faster. Our findings emphasize the applicability and robustness of robotic swarm exploration in dynamic and challenging environments for tasks such as gas source localization.

The self-reconfigurable modular robotic system is a class of robots that can alter its configuration by rearranging the connectivity of their component modular units. The reconfiguration deformation planning problem is to find a sequence of reconfiguration actions to transform one reconfiguration into another. In this paper, a hybrid reconfiguration deformation planning algorithm for modular robots is presented to enable reconfiguration between initial and goal configurations. A hybrid algorithm is developed to decompose the configuration into subconfigurations with maximum commonality and implement distributed dynamic mapping of free vertices. The module mapping relationship between the initial and target configurations is then utilized to generate reconfiguration actions. Simulation and experiment results verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

In swarm-robotics foraging, the purpose of task allocation is to adjust the number of active foraging robots dynamically based on the task demands and changing environment. It is a difficult challenge to generate self-organized foraging behavior in which each robot can adapt to environmental changes. To complete the foraging task efficiently, this paper presents a novel self-organized task allocation strategy known as the dynamic response threshold model (DRTM). To adjust the behavior of the active foraging robots, the proposed DRTM newly introduces the traffic flow density, which can be used to evaluate the robot density. Firstly, the traffic flow density and the amount of obstacle avoidance are used to adjust the threshold which determines the tendency of a robot to respond to a stimulus in the environment. Then, each individual robot uses the threshold and external stimulus to calculate the foraging probability that determines whether or not to go foraging. This paper completes the simulation and physical experiments, respectively, and the performance of the proposed method is evaluated using three commonly used performance indexes: the average deviation of food, the energy efficiency, and the number of obstacle avoidance events. The experimental results show that the DRTM is superior to and more efficient than the adaptive response threshold model (ARTM) in all three indexes.

This paper addresses the problem of building an occupancy grid map of an unknown environment using a swarm comprising resource-constrained robots, i.e., robots with limited exteroceptive and inter-robot sensing capabilities. Past approaches have, commonly, used random-motion models to disperse the swarm and explore the environment randomly, which do not necessarily consider prior information already contained in the map. Herein, we present a collaborative, effective exploration strategy that directs the swarm toward ‘promising’ frontiers by dividing the swarm into two teams: landmark robots and mapper robots, respectively. The former direct the latter, toward promising frontiers, to collect proximity measurements to be incorporated into the map. The positions of the landmark robots are optimized to maximize new information added to the map while also adhering to connectivity constraints. The proposed strategy is novel as it decouples the problem of directing the resource-constrained swarm from the problem of mapping to build an occupancy grid map. The performance of the proposed strategy was validated through extensive simulated experiments.

Robot swarms are becoming popular in domains that require spatial coordination. Effective human control over swarm members is pivotal for ensuring swarm behaviours align with the dynamic needs of the system. Several techniques have been proposed for scalable human–swarm interaction. However, these techniques were mostly developed in simple simulation environments without guidance on how to scale them up to the real world. This paper addresses this research gap by proposing a metaverse for scalable control of robot swarms and an adaptive framework for different levels of autonomy. In the metaverse, the physical/real world of a swarm symbiotically blends with a virtual world formed from digital twins representing each swarm member and logical control agents. The proposed metaverse drastically decreases swarm control complexity due to human reliance on only a few virtual agents, with each agent dynamically actuating on a sub-swarm. The utility of the metaverse is demonstrated by a case study where humans controlled a swarm of uncrewed ground vehicles (UGVs) using gestural communication, and via a single virtual uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV). The results show that humans could successfully control the swarm under two different levels of autonomy, while task performance increases as autonomy increases.

Optimising a swarm of many robots can be computationally demanding, especially when accurate simulations are required to evaluate the proposed robot configurations. Consequentially, the size of the instances and swarms must be limited, reducing the number of problems that can be addressed. In this article, we study the viability of using surrogate models based on Gaussian processes and artificial neural networks as predictors of the robots’ behaviour when arranged in formations surrounding a central point of interest. We have trained the surrogate models and tested them in terms of accuracy and execution time on five different case studies comprising three, five, ten, fifteen, and thirty robots. Then, the best performing predictors combined with ARGoS simulations have been used to obtain optimal configurations for the robot swarm by using our proposed hybrid evolutionary algorithm, based on a genetic algorithm and a local search. Finally, the best swarm configurations obtained have been tested on a number of unseen scenarios comprising different initial robot positions to evaluate the robustness and stability of the achieved robot formations. The best performing predictors exhibited speed increases of up to 3604 with respect to the ARGoS simulations. The optimisation algorithm converged in 91% of runs and stable robot formations were achieved in 79% of the unseen testing scenarios.

A swarm of robots is the coordination of multiple robots that can perform a collective task and solve a problem more efficiently than a single robot. Over the last decade, this area of research has received significant interest from scientists due to its large field of applications in military or civil, including area exploration, target search and rescue, security and surveillance, agriculture, air defense, area coverage and real-time monitoring, providing wireless services, and delivery of goods. This research domain of collective behaviour draws inspiration from self-organizing systems in nature, such as honey bees, fish schools, social insects, bird flocks, and other social animals. By replicating the same set of interaction rules observed in these natural swarm systems, robot swarms can be created. The deployment of robot swarm or group of intelligent robots in a real-world scenario that can collectively perform a task or solve a problem is still a substantial research challenge. Swarm robots are differentiated from multi-agent robots by specific qualifying criteria, including the presence of at least three agents and the sharing of relative information such as altitude, position, and velocity among all agents. Each agent should be intelligent and follow the same set of interaction rules over the whole network. Also, the system’s stability should not be affected by leaving or disconnecting an agent from a swarm. This survey illustrates swarm systems’ basics and draws some projections from its history to its future. It discusses the important features of swarm robots, simulators, real-world applications, and future ideas.

Collaborative robots represent an evolution in the field of swarm robotics that is pervasive in modern industrial undertakings from manufacturing to exploration. Though there has been much work on path planning for autonomous robots employing floor plans, energy-efficient navigation of autonomous robots in unknown environments is gaining traction. This work presents a novel methodology of low-overhead collaborative sensing, run-time mapping and localization, and navigation for robot swarms. The aim is to optimize energy consumption for the swarm as a whole rather than individual robots. An energy- and information-aware management algorithm is proposed to optimize the time and energy required for a swarm of autonomous robots to move from a launch area to the predefined destination. This is achieved by modifying the classical Partial Swarm SLAM technique, whereby sections of objects discovered by different members of the swarm are stitched together and broadcast to members of the swarm. Thus, a follower can find the shortest path to the destination while avoiding even far away obstacles in an efficient manner. The proposed algorithm reduces the energy consumption of the swarm as a whole due to the fact that the leading robots sense and discover respective optimal paths and share their discoveries with the followers. The simulation results show that the robots effectively re-optimized the previous solution while sharing necessary information within the swarm. Furthermore, the efficiency of the proposed scheme is shown via comparative results, i.e., reducing traveling distance by 13% for individual robots and up to 11% for the swarm as a whole in the performed experiments.

Multiple robots are used in robotic applications to achieve tasks that are impossible to perform as individual robotic modules. At the microscale/nanoscale, controlling multiple robots is difficult due to the limitations of fabrication technologies and the availability of on-board controllers. This highlights the requirement of different approaches compared to macro systems for a group of microrobotic systems. Current microrobotic systems have the capability to form different configurations, either as a collectively actuated swarm or a selectively actuated group of agents. Magnetic, acoustic, electric, optical, and hybrid methods are reviewed under collective formation methods, and surface anchoring, heterogeneous design, and non-uniform control input are significant in the selective formation of microrobotic systems. In addition, actuation principles play an important role in designing microrobotic systems with multiple microrobots, and the various control systems are also reviewed because they affect the development of such systems at the microscale. Reconfigurability, self-adaptable motion, and enhanced imaging due to the aggregation of modules have shown potential applications specifically in the biomedical sector. This review presents the current state of shape formation using microrobots with regard to forming techniques, actuation principles, and control systems. Finally, the future developments of these systems are presented.

In this article, we present a distributed robot 3D formation system optimally parameterised by a hybrid evolutionary algorithm (EA) in order to improve its efficiency and robustness. To achieve that, we first describe the novel distributed formation algorithm3 (DFA3), the proposed EA, and the two crossover operators to be tested. The EA hyperparameterisation is performed by using the irace package and the evaluation of the three case studies featuring three, five, and ten unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is performed through realistic simulations by using ARGoS and ten scenarios evaluated in parallel to improve the robustness of the configurations calculated. The optimisation results, reported with statistical significance, and the validation performed on 270 unseen scenarios show that the use of a metaheuristic is imperative for such a complex problem despite some overfitting observed under certain circumstances. All in all, the UAV swarm self-organised itself to achieve stable formations in 95% of the scenarios studied with a plus/minus ten percent tolerance.

In this study, the general structure of swarm robotics is examined. Algorithms inspired by nature, which form the basis of swarm robotics, are introduced. Communication topologies in robotic swarms, which are similar to the communication methods between living things moving in nature, are included and how these can be used in swarm communication is emphasized. With the developed algorithms, how the swarm can imitate nature and what tasks it can perform have been explained. The various problems that will be encountered in terms of the design of the optimization methods used during the control of the swarm and the solutions are simulated using the Webots software. As a result, ideas on the solutions of these problems and suggestions are proposed.

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), colloquially known as drones, has grown rapidly over the past two decades and continues to expand at a rapid pace. This has resulted in the production of many research papers addressing the use of UAVs in a variety of applications, such as forest firefighting. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of UAV-based forest-fire-extinguishing activity (FFEA) operations. To achieve this goal, a systematic literature review was conducted to answer a specific set of questions, which were carefully formulated to address the results of research conducted between 2008 and 2021. This study aims to (i) expand our understanding of the development of UAVs and their current contributions to the FFEA; (ii) identify particularly novel or unique applications and characteristics of UAV-based fire-extinguishing systems; (iii) provide guidance for exploring and revising further ideas in this field by identifying under-researched topics and other areas in which more contributions are needed; and (iv) explore the feasibility of using UAV swarms to enable autonomous firefighting in the forest without human intervention. Of the 1353 articles systematically searched across five databases (Google Scholar, ACM Digital Library, Science Direct, Scopus, and IEEE Explore), 51 highly relevant articles were found to meet the inclusion criteria; therefore, they were analyzed and discussed. The results identified several gaps in this field of study among them the complexity of coordination in multi-robotic systems, the lack of evaluation and implementation of fire extinguishing systems, the inability of handling multiple spot fires, and poor management of time and resources. Finally, based on the conducted review, this paper provides significant research directions that require further investigations by researchers in this field including, the deployment of UAV-based Swarm Robotics, further study on the characteristics of the fire extinguishing systems; design more effective area coverage; and the propose of a self-firefighting model that enables individuals to decide on the course of events efficiently and locally for better utilization and management of time and resources.

This paper presents an updated and broad review of swarm robotics research papers regarding software, hardware, simulators and applications. The evolution from its concept to its real-life implementation is presented. Swarm robotics analysis is focused on four aspects: conceptualization, simulators, real-life robotics for swarm use, and applications. For simulators and robots, a detailed comparison between existing resources is made. A summary of the most used swarm robotics applications and behaviors is included.

In the literature, several exploration algorithms have been proposed so far. Among these, Lévy walk is commonly used since it is proved to be more efficient than the simple random-walk exploration. It is beneficial when targets are sparsely distributed in the search space. However, due to its super-diffusive behavior, some tuning is needed to improve its performance, specifically when targets are clustered. Firefly algorithm is a swarm intelligence-based algorithm useful for intensive search, but its exploration rate is very limited. An efficient and reliable search could be attained by combining the two algorithms since the first one allows exploration space, and the second one encourages its exploitation. In this paper, we propose a swarm intelligence-based search algorithm called Lévy walk and Firefly-based Algorithm (LFA), which is a hybridization of the two aforementioned algorithms. The algorithm is applied to Multi-Target Search and Multi-Robot Foraging. Numerical experiments to test the performances are conducted on the robotic simulator ARGoS. A comparison with the original firefly algorithm proves the goodness of our contribution.

In this article, we propose SuSy-EnGaD, a surveillance system enhanced by games of drones. We propose three different approaches to optimise a swarm of UAVs for improving intruder detection, two of them featuring a multi-objective optimisation approach, while the third approach relates to the evolutionary game theory where three different strategies based on games are proposed. We test our system on four different case studies, analyse the results presented as Pareto fronts in terms of flying time and area coverage, and compare them with the single-objective optimisation results from games. Finally, an analysis of the UAVs trajectories is performed to help understand the results achieved.

The swarms of robots are examples of artificial collective intelligence, with simple individual autonomous behavior and emerging swarm effect to accomplish even complex tasks. Modeling approaches for robotic swarm development is one of the main challenges in this field of research. Here, we present a robot-instantiated theoretical framework and a quantitative worked-out example. Aiming to build up a general model, we first sketch a diagrammatic classification of swarms relating ideal swarms to existing implementations, inspired by category theory. Then, we propose a matrix representation to relate local and global behaviors in a swarm, with diagonal sub-matrices describing individual features and off-diagonal sub-matrices as pairwise interaction terms. Thus, we attempt to shape the structure of such an interaction term, using language and tools of quantum computing for a quantitative simulation of a toy model. We choose quantum computing because of its computational efficiency. This case study can shed light on potentialities of quantum computing in the realm of swarm robotics, leaving room for progressive enrichment and refinement.

The collective motion of biological species has robust and flexible characteristics. Since the individual of the biological group interacts with other neighbors asymmetrically, which means the pairwise interaction presents asymmetrical characteristics during the collective motion, building the model of the pairwise interaction of the individual is still full of challenges. Based on deep learning (DL) technology, experimental data of the collective motion on Hemigrammus rhodostomus fish are analyzed to build an individual interaction model with multi-parameter input. First, a Deep Neural Network (DNN) structure for pairwise interaction is designed. Then, the interaction model is obtained by means of DNN proper training. We propose a novel key neighbor selection strategy, which is called the Largest Visual Pressure Selection (LVPS) method, to deal with multi-neighbor interaction. Based on the information of the key neighbor identified by LVPS, the individual uses the properly trained DNN model for the pairwise interaction. Compared with other key neighbor selection strategies, the statistical properties of the collective motion simulated by our proposed DNN model are more consistent with those of fish experiments. The simulation shows that our proposed method can extend to large-scale group collective motion for aggregation control. Thereby, the individual can take advantage of quite limited local information to collaboratively achieve large-scale collective motion. Finally, we demonstrate swarm robotics collective motion in an experimental platform. The proposed control method is simple to use, applicable for different scales, and fast for calculation. Thus, it has broad application prospects in the fields of multi-robotics control, intelligent transportation systems, saturated cluster attacks, and multi-agent logistics, among other fields.

Multirobot cooperation enhancing the efficiency of numerous applications such as maintenance, rescue, inspection in cluttered unknown environments is the interesting topic recently. However, designing a formation strategy for multiple robots which enables the agents to follow the predefined master robot during navigation actions without a prebuilt map is challenging due to the uncertainties of self-localization and motion control. In this paper, we present a multirobot system to form the symmetrical patterns effectively within the unknown environment deployed randomly. To enable self-localization during group formatting, we propose the sensor fusion system leveraging sensor fusion from the ultrawideband-based positioning system, Inertial Measurement Unit orientation system, and wheel encoder to estimate robot locations precisely. Moreover, we propose a global path planning algorithm considering the kinematic of the robot’s action inside the workspace as a metric space. Experiments are conducted on a set of robots called Falcon with a conventional four-wheel skid steering schematic as a case study to validate our proposed path planning technique. The outcome of our trials shows that the proposed approach produces exact robot locations after sensor fusion with the feasible formation tracking of multiple robots system on the simulated and real-world experiments.

In recent years, collaborative robots have become one of the main drivers of Industry 4.0. Compared to industrial robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are more productive, flexible, versatile, and safer. They are used in the smart factory to transport goods. Today, many producers and developers of industrial robots have entered the AGV sector. However, they face several challenges in designing AGV systems, such as the complexity and discontinuity of the design process, as well as the difficulty of defining a decentralized system decision. In this paper, we propose a new integrated design methodology based on swarm robotics to address the challenges of functional, physical, and software integration. This methodology includes two phases: a top-down phase from requirements specification to functional and structural modeling using the systems modeling language (SysML); with a bottom-up phase for model integration and implementation in the robot operating system (ROS). A case study of an automated guided vehicle (AGV) system was chosen to validate our design methodology and illustrate its contributions to the efficient design of AGVs. The novelty of this proposed methodology is the combination of SysML and ROS to address traceability management between the different design levels of AGV systems, in order to achieve functional, physical and software integration.

Swarm robotics is an emerging field that can offer efficient solutions to real-world problems with minimal cost. Despite recent developments in the field, however, it is still not sufficiently mature, and challenges clearly remain. The dynamic deadline problem is neglected in the literature, and thus, time-sensitive foraging tasks are still an open research problem. This paper proposes a novel approach—ED_Foraging—that allows simple robots with limited sensing and communication abilities to perform complex foraging tasks that are dynamic and time constrained. A new mathematical model is developed in this paper to utilize epidemiological modeling and predict the dynamics of resource deadlines. Moreover, an improved dynamic task allocation (DTA) method is proposed to assign robots to the most critical region, where a deadline is represented by a state and time. The main goal is to reduce the number of expired resources and collect them as quickly as possible by giving priority to those that are more likely to expire if not collected. The deadlines are unknown and change dynamically. Thus, the robots continuously collect local information throughout their journeys and allocate themselves dynamically to the predicted hotspots. In the experiments, the proposed approach is adapted to four DTA methods and tested with different setups using simulated foot-bot robots. The flexibility, scalability, and robustness of this approach are measured in terms of the foraging and expiration rates. The empirical results support the hypothesis that epidemiological modeling can be utilized to handle foraging tasks that are constrained by dynamic deadlines. It is also confirmed that the proposed DTA method improves the results, which were found to be flexible, scalable, and robust to changes in the number of robots and the map size.

Prey-predator interactions play a pivotal role in elucidating the evolution and adaptation of various organism's traits. Numerous approaches have been employed to study the dynamics of prey-predator interaction systems, with agent-based methodologies gaining popularity. However, existing agent-based models are limited in their ability to handle multi-modal interactions, which are believed to be crucial for understanding living organisms. Conversely, prevailing prey-predator integration studies often rely on mathematical models and computer simulations, neglecting real-world constraints and noise. These elusive attributes, challenging to model, can lead to emergent behaviors and embodied intelligence. To bridge these gaps, our study designs and implements a prey-predator interaction scenario that incorporates visual and olfactory sensory cues not only in computer simulations but also in a real multi-robot system. Observed emergent spatial-temporal dynamics demonstrate successful transitioning of investigating prey-predator interactions from virtual simulations to the tangible world. It highlights the potential of multi-robotics approaches for studying prey-predator interactions and lays the groundwork for future investigations involving multi-modal sensory processing while considering real-world constraints.

The design of robust yet simple communication mechanisms, that allow the cooperation through direct interaction among robots, is an important aspect of swarm robotics systems. In this paper, we analyze how an identical continuous-time recurrent neural network (CTRNN) controller can lead to the emergence of different kinds of communications within the swarm, either abstract or situated, depending on the problem to be faced. More precisely, we address two swarm robotics tasks that require, at some extent, communication to be solved: leader selection and borderline identification. The parameters of the CTRNN are evolved using separable natural evolution strategies. It is shown that, using the same starting conditions and robots’ controllers, the evolution process leads to the emergence of utterly diverging communications. Firstly, an abstract communication, in which the message carries all the information, results from evolution in the leader selection task. Alternatively, a purely situated communication, meaning that only the context is communicative, emerges when dealing with the borderline identification problem. Nonetheless, scalability and robustness properties are successfully validated.

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a numerical optimization technique based on the motion of virtual particles within a multidimensional space. The particles explore the space in an attempt to find minima or maxima to the optimization problem. The motion of the particles is linked, and the overall behavior of the particle swarm is controlled by several parameters. PSO has been proposed as a control strategy for physical swarms of robots that are localizing a source; the robots are analogous to the virtual particles. However, previous attempts to achieve this have shown that there are inherent problems. This paper addresses these problems by introducing a modified version of PSO, as well as introducing new guidelines for parameter selection. The proposed algorithm links the parameters to the velocity and acceleration of each robot, and demonstrates obstacle avoidance. Simulation results from both MATLAB and Gazebo show close agreement and demonstrate that the proposed algorithm is capable of effective control of a robotic swarm and obstacle avoidance.

Target searching is a well-known but difficult problem in many research domains, including computational intelligence, swarm intelligence, and robotics. The main goal is to search for the targets within the specific boundary with the minimum time that is required and the obstacle avoidance that has been equipped in place. Swarm robotics (SR) is an extension of the multi-robot system that particularly discovers a concept of coordination, collaboration, and communication among a large number of robots. Because the robots are collaborating and working together, the task that is given will be completed faster compared to using a single robot. Thus, searching for single or multiple targets with swarm robots is a significant and realistic approach. Robustness, flexibility, and scalability, which are supported by distributed sensing, also make the swarm robots strategy suitable for target searching problems in real-world applications. The purpose of this article is to deliver a systematic literature review of SR strategies that are applied to target search problems, so as to show which are being explored in the fields as well as the performance of current state-of-the-art SR approaches. This review extracts data from four scientific databases and filters with two established high-indexed databases (Scopus and Web of Science). Notably, 25 selected articles fell under two main categories in environment complexity, namely empty space and cluttered. There are four strategies which have been compiled for both empty space and cluttered categories, namely, bio-inspired mechanism, behavior-based mechanism, random strategy mechanism, and hybrid mechanism.

Remembering information is a fundamental aspect of cognition present in numerous natural systems. It allows adaptation of the behavior as a function of previously encountered situations. For instance, many living organisms use memory to recall if a given situation incurred a penalty or a reward and rely on that information to avoid or reproduce that situation. In groups, memory is commonly studied in the case where individual members are themselves capable of learning and a few of them hold pieces of information that can be later retrieved for the benefits of the group. Here, we investigate how a group may display memory when the individual members have reactive behaviors and can not learn any information. The well known conditioning experiments of Pavlov illustrate how single animals can memorize stimuli associated with a reward and later trigger a related behavioral response even in the absence of reward. To study and demonstrate collective memory in artificial systems, we get inspiration from the Pavlov experiments and propose a setup tailored for testing our robotic swarm. We devised a novel behavior based on the fundamental process of aggregation with which robots exhibit collective memory. We show that the group is capable of encoding, storing, and retrieving information that is not present at the level of the individuals.

This article presents a macroscopic swarm foraging behavior obtained using deep reinforcement learning. The selected behavior is a complex task in which a group of simple agents must be directed towards an object to move it to a target position without the use of special gripping mechanisms, using only their own bodies. Our system has been designed to use and combine basic fuzzy behaviors to control obstacle avoidance and the low-level rendezvous processes needed for the foraging task. We use a realistically modeled swarm based on differential robots equipped with light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors. It is important to highlight that the obtained macroscopic behavior, in contrast to that of end-to-end systems, combines existing microscopic tasks, which allows us to apply these learning techniques even with the dimensionality and complexity of the problem in a realistic robotic swarm system. The presented behavior is capable of correctly developing the macroscopic foraging task in a robust and scalable way, even in situations that have not been seen in the training phase. An exhaustive analysis of the obtained behavior is carried out, where both the movement of the swarm while performing the task and the swarm scalability are analyzed.

Complex service robotics scenarios entail unpredictable task appearance both in space and time. This requires robots to continuously relocate and imposes a trade-off between motion costs and efficiency in task execution. In such scenarios, multi-robot systems and even swarms of robots can be exploited to service different areas in parallel. An efficient deployment needs to continuously determine the best allocation according to the actual service needs, while also taking relocation costs into account when such allocation must be modified. For large scale problems, centrally predicting optimal allocations and movement paths for each robot quickly becomes infeasible. Instead, decentralized solutions are needed that allow the robotic system to self-organize and adaptively respond to the task demands. In this paper, we propose a distributed and asynchronous approach to simultaneous task assignment and path planning for robot swarms, which combines a bio-inspired collective decision-making process for the allocation of robots to areas to be serviced, and a search-based path planning approach for the actual routing of robots towards tasks to be executed. Task allocation exploits a hierarchical representation of the workspace, supporting the robot deployment to the areas that mostly require service. We investigate four realistic environments of increasing complexity, where each task requires a robot to reach a location and work for a specific amount of time. The proposed approach improves over two different baseline algorithms in specific settings with statistical significance, while showing consistently good results overall. Moreover, the proposed solution is robust to limited communication and robot failures.

Known as an artificial intelligence subarea, Swarm Robotics is a developing study field investigating bio-inspired collaborative control approaches and integrates a huge collection of agents, reasonably plain robots, in a distributed and decentralized manner. It offers an inspiring essential platform for new researchers to be engaged and share new knowledge to examine their concepts in analytical and heuristic strategies. This paper introduces an overview of current activities in Swarm Robotics and examines the present literature in this area to establish to approach between a realistic swarm robotic system and real-world enforcements. First, we review several Swarm Intelligence concepts to define Swarm Robotics systems, reporting their essential qualities and features and contrast them to generic multi-robotic systems. Second, we report a review of the principal projects that allow realistic study of Swarm Robotics. We demonstrate knowledge regarding current hardware platforms and multi-robot simulators. Finally, the forthcoming promissory applications and the troubles to surpass with a view to achieving them have been described and analyzed.

For a given positive integer k, the k-circle formation problem asks a set of autonomous, asynchronous robots to form disjoint circles having k robots each at distinct locations, centered at a set of fixed points in the Euclidean plane. The robots are identical, anonymous, oblivious, and they operate in Look–Compute–Move cycles. This paper studies the k-circle formation problem and its relationship with the k-epf problem, a generalized version of the embedded pattern formation problem, which asks exactly k robots to reach and remain at each fixed point. First, the k-circle formation problem is studied in a setting where the robots have an agreement on the common direction and orientation of one of the axes. We have characterized all the configurations and the values of k, for which the k-circle formation problem is deterministically unsolvable in this setting. For the remaining configurations and the values of k, a deterministic distributed algorithm has been proposed, in order to solve the problem. It has been proved that for the initial configurations with distinct robot positions, if the k-circle formation problem is deterministically solvable then the k-epf problem is also deterministically solvable. It has been shown that by modifying the proposed algorithm, the k-epf problem can be solved deterministically.

This article will present two swarming behaviors for deployment in unstructured environments using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These behaviors will use stigmergy for communication. We found that there are currently few realistic deployment approaches that use stigmergy, due mainly to the difficulty of building transmitters and receivers for this type of communication. In this paper, we will provide the microscopic design of two behaviors with different technological and information requirements. We will compare them and also investigate how the number of agents influences the deployment. In this work, these behaviors will be exhaustively analyzed, taking into account different take-off time interval strategies, the number of collisions, and the time and energy required by the swarm. Numerous simulations will be conducted using unstructured maps generated at random, which will enable the establishment of the general functioning of the behaviors independently of the map used. Finally, we will show how both behaviors are capable of achieving the required deployment task in terms of covering time and energy consumed by the swarm. We will discuss how, depending on the type of map used, this task can be performed at a lower cost without using a more informed (but expensive) robotic swarm.

Research in swarm robotics has shown that automatic design is an effective approach to realize robot swarms. In automatic design methods, the collective behavior of a swarm is obtained by automatically configuring and fine-tuning the control software of individual robots. In this paper, we present TuttiFrutti: an automatic design method for robot swarms that belongs to AutoMoDe—a family of methods that produce control software by assembling preexisting software modules via optimization. The peculiarity of TuttiFrutti is that it designs control software for e-puck robots that can display and perceive colors using their RGB LEDs and omnidirectional camera. Studies with AutoMoDe have been so far restricted by the limited capabilities of the e-pucks. By enabling the use of colors, we significantly enlarge the variety of collective behaviors they can produce. We assess TuttiFrutti with swarms of e-pucks that perform missions in which they should react to colored light. Results show that TuttiFrutti designs collective behaviors in which the robots identify the colored light displayed in the environment and act accordingly. The control software designed by TuttiFrutti endowed the swarms of e-pucks with the ability to use color-based information for handling events, communicating, and navigating.

In this article, we propose a new mobility model, called Attractor Based Inter-Swarm collaborationS (ABISS), for improving the surveillance of restricted areas performed by unmanned autonomous vehicles. This approach uses different types of vehicles which explore an area of interest following unpredictable trajectories based on chaotic solutions of dynamic systems. Collaborations between vehicles are meant to cover some regions of the area which are unreachable by members of one swarm, e.g., unmanned ground vehicles on water surface, by using members of another swarm, e.g., unmanned aerial vehicles. Experimental results demonstrate that collaboration is not only possible but also emerges as part of the configurations calculated by a specially designed and parameterised evolutionary algorithm. Experiments were conducted on 12 different case studies including 30 scenarios each, observing an improvement in the total covered area up to 11%, when comparing ABISS with a non-collaborative approach.

In this paper a microscopic, non-discrete, mathematical model based on stigmergy for predicting the nodal aggregation dynamics of decentralized, autonomous robotic swarms is proposed. The model departs from conventional applications of stigmergy in bioinspired path-finding optimization, serving as a dynamic aggregation algorithm for nodes with limited or no ability to perform discrete logical operations, aiding in agent miniaturization. Time-continuous simulations were developed and carried out where nodal aggregation efficiency was evaluated using the following metrics: time to aggregation equilibrium, agent spatial distribution within aggregate (including average inter-nodal distance, center of mass of aggregate deviation from target), and deviation from target agent number. The system was optimized using cost minimization of the above factors through generating a random set of cost datapoints with varying initial conditions (number of aggregates, agents, field dimensions, and other specific agent parameters) where the best-fit scalar field was obtained using a random forest ensemble learning strategy and polynomial regression. The scalar cost field global minimum was obtained through basin-hopping with L-BFGS-B local minimization on the scalar fields obtained through both methods. The proposed optimized model describes the physical properties that non-digital agents must possess so that the proposed aggregation behavior emerges, in order to avoid discrete state algorithms aiming towards developing agents independent of digital components aiding to their miniaturization.

The advent of the swarm makes it feasible to dynamically monitor a wide area for maritime applications. The crucial problems of underwater swarm monitoring are communication and behavior coordination. To tackle these problems, we propose a wide area monitoring strategy that searches for static targets of interest simultaneously. Traditionally, an underwater robot adopts either acoustic communication or optical communication. However, the former is low in bandwidth and the latter is short in communication range. Our strategy coordinates underwater robots through indirect communication, which is inspired by social insects that exchange information by pheromone. The indirect communication is established with the help of a set of underwater communication nodes. We adopt a virtual pheromone-based controller and provide a set of rules to integrate the area of interest into the pheromone. Based on the information in the virtual pheromone, behavior laws are developed to guide the swarm to monitor and search with nearby information. In addition, a robot can improve its performance when using additional far-away pheromone information. The monitoring strategy is further improved by adopting a swarm evolution scheme which automatically adjusts the visiting period. Experimental results show that our strategy is superior to the random strategy in most cases.

By forming a specific formation during motion, the robotic swarm is a good candidate for unknown region exploration applications. The members of this kind of system are generally low complexity, which limits the communication and perception capacities of the agents. How to merge to the desired formation under those constraints is essential for performing relevant tasks. In this paper, a limited visual field constrained formation control strategy inspired by flying geese coordinated motion is introduced. Usually, they flock together in a V-shape formations, which is a well-studied phenomenon in biology and bionics. This paper illustrates the proposed methods by taking the research results from the above subjects and mapping them from the swarm engineering point of view. The formation control is achieved by applying a behavior-based formation forming method with the finite state machine while considering anti-collision and obstacle avoidance. Furthermore, a cascade leader⁻follower structure is adopted to achieve the large-scale formations. The simulation results from several scenarios indicate the presented method is robust with high scalability and flexibility.

Swarming and modular robotic locomotion are two disconnected behaviours that a group of small homogeneous robots can be used to achieve. The use of these two behaviours is a popular subject in robotics research involving search, rescue and exploration. However, they are rarely addressed as two behaviours that can coexist within a single robotic system. Here, we present a bio-inspired decision mechanism, which provides a convenient way for evolution to configure the conditions and timing of behaving as a swarm or a modular robot in an exploration scenario. The decision mechanism switches among two behaviours that are previously developed (a pheromone-based swarm control and a sinusoidal rectilinear modular robot movement). We use Genetic Programming (GP) to evolve the controller for these decisions, which acts without a centralized mechanism and with limited inter-robot communication. The results show that the proposed bio-inspired decision mechanism provides an evolvable medium for the GP to utilize in evolving an effective decision-making mechanism.

Swarms of robots can use their sensing abilities to explore unknown environments and deploy on sites of interest. In this task, a large number of robots is more effective than a single unit because of their ability to quickly cover the area. However, the coordination of large teams of robots is not an easy problem, especially when the resources for the deployment are limited. In this paper, the Distributed Bees Algorithm (DBA), previously proposed by the authors, is optimized and applied to distributed target allocation in swarms of robots. Improved target allocation in terms of deployment cost efficiency is achieved through optimization of the DBA’s control parameters by means of a Genetic Algorithm. Experimental results show that with the optimized set of parameters, the deployment cost measured as the average distance traveled by the robots is reduced. The cost-efficient deployment is in some cases achieved at the expense of increased robots’ distribution error. Nevertheless, the proposed approach allows the swarm to adapt to the operating conditions when available resources are scarce.

A wealth of current research in microengineering aims at fabricating devices of increasing complexity, notably by (self-)assembling elementary components into heterogeneous functional systems. At the same time, a large body of robotic research called swarm robotics is concerned with the design and the control of large ensembles of robots of decreasing size and complexity. This paper describes the asymptotic convergence of micro/nano electromechanical systems (M/NEMS) on one side, and swarm robotic systems on the other, toward a unifying class of systems, which we denote Smart Minimal Particles (SMPs). We define SMPs as mobile, purely reactive and physically embodied agents that compensate for their limited on-board capabilities using specifically engineered reactivity to external physical stimuli, including local energy and information scavenging. In trading off internal resources for simplicity and robustness, SMPs are still able to collectively perform non-trivial, spatio-temporally coordinated and highly scalable operations such as aggregation and self-assembly (SA). We outline the opposite converging tendencies, namely M/NEMS smarting and robotic minimalism, by reviewing each field’s literature with specific focus on self-assembling systems. Our main claim is that the SMPs can be used to develop a unifying technological and methodological framework that bridges the gap between passive M/NEMS and active, centimeter-sized robots. By proposing this unifying perspective, we hypothesize a continuum in both complexity and length scale between these two extremes. We illustrate the benefits of possible cross-fertilizations among these originally separate domains, with specific emphasis on the modeling of collective dynamics. Particularly, we argue that while most of the theoretical studies on M/NEMS SA dynamics belong so far to one of only two main frameworks—based on analytical master equations and on numerical agent-based simulations, respectively—alternative models developed in swarm robotics could be amenable to the task, and thereby provide important novel insights.

Efficient distributed processing is vital for collaborative searching tasks of robotic swarm systems. Typically, those systems are decentralized, and the members have only limited communication and processing capacities. What is illustrated in this paper is a distributed processing paradigm for robotic swarms moving in a line or v-shape formation. The introduced concept is capable of exploits the line and v-shape formations for 2-D filtering and processing algorithms based on a modified multi-dimensional Roesser model. The communication is only between nearest adjacent members with a simple state variable. As an example, we applied a salient region detection algorithm to the proposed framework. The simulation results indicate the designed paradigm can detect salient regions by using a moving line or v-shape formation in a scanning way. The requirement of communication and processing capability in this framework is minimal, making it a good candidate for collaborative exploration of formatted robotic swarms.

The search of a given area is one of the most studied tasks in swarm robotics. Different heuristic methods have been studied in the past taking into account the peculiarities of these systems (number of robots, limited communications and sensing and computational capacities). In this work, we introduce a behavioral network made up of different well-known behaviors that act together to achieve a good performance, while adapting to different scenarios. The algorithm is compared with six strategies based on movement patterns in terms of three performance models. For the comparison, four scenario types are considered: plain, with obstacles, with the target location probability distribution and a combination of obstacles and the target location probability distribution. For each scenario type, different variations are considered, such as the number of agents and area size. Results show that although simplistic solutions may be convenient for the simplest scenario type, for the more complex ones, the proposed algorithm achieves better results.

Considering specialized agents in swarm robotics, with robots dedicated to specific tasks, requires that formation control and efficient transition in the leadership of the swarm is achieved. Here, a task switching approach is formulated by evolving the definition of specialization to match with targets recognition in the environment, such as detecting special landmarks via embedded sensors. Specialization zones are defined around each detected target corresponding to a task to be dealt with by a specific robot. Entering within the zone of influence surrounding a target triggers the switching of the leader of the formation. The framework is also further refined by making the targets, and therefore the corresponding zone of influence, dynamic, which leads to the consideration of combined specialization areas. The proposed system is validated in simulation to demonstrate that the group of robots effectively coordinate themselves around targets and dynamically allocate the appropriate specialized agent.