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The aim of this paper is to propose a workflow for the real-time visualization of virtual environments that supports diagnostic tasks in heritage buildings. The approach integrates data from terrestrial laser scanning (3D point clouds and meshes), along with panoramic and thermal images, into a unified virtual model. Additionally, the methodology incorporates several post-processing stages designed to enhance the user experience in visualizing both the building and its associated damage. The methodology was tested on the Medieval Templar Church of Vera Cruz in Segovia, utilizing a combination of visible and infrared data, along with manually prepared damage maps. The project results demonstrate that the use of a hybrid digital model—combining 3D point clouds, polygonal meshes, and panoramic images—is highly effective for real-time rendering, providing detailed visualization while maintaining adaptability for mobile devices with limited computational power.

The cultural heritage associated with rural systems is extremely valuable and is a sign of identity for cultures that are disappearing or undergoing transformation. This paper explains and illustrates the series of procedures that have been carried out to document and subsequently virtualise the ethnological site of the “El Plantío” underground wine cellars in Atauta. The ensembles of underground wine cellars are located immediately outside the village of Atauta, from which they are separated by the stream of Arroyo de la Laguna or Golbán, thus giving rise to two environments that are characterised by the perfect interrelation between their natural and architectural heritage. The visual and scenic relations between both these elements make this area a prime example of a cultural heritage that is associated with wine production systems. This documentation was obtained through a combination of different geomatic techniques. The results are organised on a web platform to enable their digital visualisation (2D/3D). This platform provides a virtual environment such that users can understand these underground heritage assets in an integrated way together with the immaterial cultural heritage and the cultural landscape—all of which converge on this ethnological site. The project offers different types of audiences, both real and virtual, access to all of the documentation.

The result of the multidisciplinary collaboration of researchers from different areas of knowledge to validate a solar radiation model is presented. The MAPsol is a 3D local-scale adaptive solar radiation model that allows us to estimate direct, diffuse, and reflected irradiance for clear sky conditions. The model includes the adaptation of the mesh to complex orography and albedo, and considers the shadows cast by the terrain and buildings. The surface mesh generation is based on surface refinement, smoothing and parameterization techniques and allows the generation of high-quality adapted meshes with a reasonable number of elements. Another key aspect of the paper is the generation of a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM). This high-resolution DEM is constructed from LiDAR data, and its resolution is two times more accurate than the publicly available DEMs. The validation process uses direct and global solar irradiance data obtained from pyranometers at the University of Salamanca located in an urban area affected by systematic shading from nearby buildings. This work provides an efficient protocol for studying solar resources, with particular emphasis on areas of complex orography and dense buildings where shadows can potentially make solar energy production facilities less efficient.

The presence of shadows is one of the main disadvantages of photovoltaic solar panel installations in urban environments. This article analyses their effect on solar installations performed on urban elements where the use of solar energy can be considered novel: bus shelters. For this purpose, the PVGIS tool is used in combination with a new methodology for the extraction of the shadow horizon profile from LiDAR point clouds. The results show a 29.90% and 37% reduction of calculated solar radiation using horizon profiles derived from LiDAR point clouds of 0.5 pts/m2 and 1 pt/m2, respectively, versus no horizon profile. By taking shading into account, thanks to this study it is possible to make a more realistic prediction of the use of the electrical energy generated by the sun to cover urban energy consumption in bus shelters. Results show that the energy surplus produced overall allows these elements to be converted into charging points for light electric vehicles, allowing up to 35 units per day/bus shelter to be charged. The use of bus shelters as a place to generate clean energy through solar energy and charge light vehicles makes it possible to move towards sustainable and environmentally friendly cities.

The orography of the terrain is a key factor for the electrification of vehicles, especially regarding public transport and electric buses. This work deals with the analysis of the use of mobile laser scanning, both terrestrial and aerial, for the evaluation of the orography of urban areas. First, the minimum point density required is evaluated to estimate the slope. The results show that point densities of 1 point/m2, measured with aerial laser scanning, are adequate for the task. Based on this, the design of a route for public transport is presented including the requirements concerning key transit points, maximum slope, and others. Based on the proposed route design, the transformation to an electrified route is analyzed from an economic and environmental point of view. The results show that the implementation of electric buses vs. diesel buses in cities with steep slopes (up to 7%) reduces greenhouse gas emissions (32.59%) as well as economic costs (18.10%).

The impacts of morphine and dexmedetomidine on the MAC of isoflurane were studied in rats constantly medicated with the cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2. Methods: Prior to the administration of morphine, the MAC was measured in both untreated rats (MAC (ISO)) and those treated with a cannabinoid (MAC (ISO + CANN)). The effects of morphine (MAC (ISO + MOR)) and dexmedetomidine (MAC (ISO + DEX)) on untreated rats and rats treated for 21 days with the cannabinoids (MAC (ISO + CANN + MOR)) and (MAC (ISO + CANN + DEX) were also studied. Results: MAC (ISO) was 1.32 ± 0.06, and MAC (ISO + CANN) was 1.69 ± 0.09. MAC (ISO + MOR) was 0.97 ± 0.02 (26% less than MAC (ISO)). MAC (ISO + CANN + MOR) was 1.55 ± 0.08 (8% less than MAC (ISO + CANN)), MAC (ISO + DEX) was 0.68 ± 0.10 (48% less than MAC (ISO)), and MAC (ISO + CANN + DEX) was 0.67 ± 0.08 (60% less than MAC (ISO + CANN)). Conclusions: Medication with a cannabinoid for 21 days augmented the MAC of isoflurane. The sparing effect of morphine on isoflurane is lower in rats constantly medicated with a cannabinoid. The sparing effect of dexmedetomidine on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane is greater in rats repeatedly medicated with a cannabinoid.

This review examines the available data regarding the positive effects of microencapsulated essential oils (EOs) on the nutrition, metabolism, and possibly the methane emission of horses. A literature review was conducted on the effect of microencapsulated (EOs) on the health of horses. The information comprises articles published in recent years in indexed journals. The results indicate that mixtures of microencapsulated EOs may be beneficial to equine health due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, as well as their effects on enteric methane production, nutrient absorption, and immune system enhancement. Moreover, encapsulation stabilizes substances such as EOs in small doses, primarily by combining them with other ingredients.

This paper presents the results of a complex three-dimensional reconstruction of the church of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Ávila, Spain) as an example of a successful process of verticalization from point clouds to a comprehensive computer-aided design (CAD) model. The reconstruction was carried out using the novel and advanced wearable mobile mapping system ZEB-REVO in combination with a lifting pole, in order to cover the whole geometry of the temple and, also, to model the different constructive elements. To this end, a set of good practices was followed, which allowed for passing from reality to the CAD model, such as the use of closed loops or even the use of different parametric and non-parametric strategies to capture the real geometry of the elements. As a result, this paper outlines the main guidelines for passing from point clouds to comprehensive CAD models, the former being useful for the application of smart preventive conservation processes, heritage building information models or even advanced numerical simulations.

Cultural heritage (CH) documentation is essential for the study and promotion of CH assets/sites, and provides a way of transmitting knowledge about heritage to future generations. The integration of the fourth dimension into geospatial datasets enables generating a diachronic model of CH elements, namely, a set of three-dimensional (3D) models to represent their evolution in various historical phases. The enhanced four-dimensional (4D) modeling (3D plus time) pursues a better understanding of the CH scenario, enriching historical hypotheses as well as contributing to the conservation and decision-making process. Although new geomatic techniques have reduced the amount of fieldwork, when put together, the geometric and temporal dimensions imply the interpretation of heterogeneous historical information sources and their integration. However, this situation could reach a critical point when the study elements are no longer present. The main challenge is to harmonize the different historical and archaeological data sources that are available with the current remains in order to graphically rebuild and model the lost CH assets with a high degree of reliability. Moreover, 4D web visualization is a great way to disclose the CH information and cultural identity. Additionally, it will serve as a basis to perform simulations of possible future risks or changes that can happen during planned or hypothetical restoration processes. This paper aims to examine the study case of a diachronic reconstruction by means of a mobile laser system (MLS) and reverse modeling techniques for a lost urban CH element: the citadel or Alcázar gate of Ávila. Within this aim, the final model is evaluated in terms of the consistency of the historical sources to assess its suitability considering the constructive interpretations that are required to integrate heterogenous data sources. Moreover, geometric modeling is evaluated regarding the current remains and its surroundings. Finally, a web 4D viewer is presented for its dissemination and publicity. This paper is an extended and improved version of our paper that was published in the 2018 ISPRS Technical Commission II Symposium, Riva del Garda, Italy, 3–7 June 2018.

This research presents a virtual tour performed on the oppidum of Ulaca, one of the most relevant archaeological sites of the Iberian Peninsula during the Late Iron Age (ca. 400–50 BC). Beyond the clear benefits of the tool to the interpretation, dissemination, and knowledge of the mentioned archaeological site and its surroundings, the novelty of this research is the implementation of the platform in alternative scenarios and purposes. In this way, the present work verifies how the access to multi-source and spatially geolocated information in the same tool (working as a geospatial database) allows the promotion of cross-sectional investigations in which different specialists intervene. This peculiarity is also considered useful to promote tourism with an interest beyond the purely historical/archaeological side. Likewise, the possibility of storing and managing a large amount of information in different formats facilitates the investigation in the contexts of excavations and archaeological or environmental works. In this sense, the use of this kind of tool for the study of cultural landscapes is especially novel. In order to better contextualize the potential of the virtual tour presented here, an analysis about the challenges and possibilities of implementing this tool in environments such as the Ulaca oppidum is performed. The selected site stands out for: (i) being in a unique geological, environmental and ecological context, allowing us to appreciate how human beings have modified the landscape over time; (ii) presenting numerous visible archaeological remains with certain conservation problems; and (iii) not having easy access for visitors.

Photovoltaic solar plants are one of the main facilities away from urban centers for the generation of clean energy. Since its appropriate maintenance ensures its suitable operation, optimizing their maintenance tasks in a preventive way is key. This article presents a spatial data infrastructure called INSPECTORMAP that, based on the analysis of free satellite images within the optical spectrum, can detect unusual vegetation and bodies of water in the vicinity of photovoltaic plants that can affect their correct operation. Thanks to the implementation of a monitoring and alert system, it is possible to know and map the status of the photovoltaic plant in terms of unusual coverages appearing, both natural and artificial, at any moment. Thus, maintenance workers would travel to the solar plant to carry out their maintenance tasks in this regard only when the system detects a risk.

This work aims at enhancing the current methodologies used for generating as-built CAD models suitable for advanced numerical simulations. To this end, this paper proposes the use of a wearable mobile mapping system that allows one to improve the digitalization stage in terms of flexibility and time required. The noise showed by the resulting point cloud, based on the simultaneous location and mapping (SLAM) solution, demands a post-processing stage that introduces the use of a parameter-free noise reduction filter. This filter improves the quality of the point cloud, allowing for the adjustment of surfaces by means of parametric and non-parametric shapes. These shapes are created by using reverse engineering procedures. The results showed during this investigation highlight a novel application of this sensor: the creation of as-built CAD models for advanced numerical simulations. The results of this investigation are complemented by a valuable contribution with respect to the use of an advanced restoration solution, by means of textile reinforced mortar. To this end, the CAD model is used as the geometrical base for several numerical simulations by means of the finite element method. All this procedure is applied in a construction with structural problems.

The use of LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data for the definition of the 3D geometry of roofs has been widely exploited in recent years for its posterior application in the field of solar energy. Point density in LiDAR data is an essential characteristic to be taken into account for the accurate estimation of roof geometry: area, orientation and slope. This paper presents a comparative study between LiDAR data of different point densities: 0.5, 1, 2 and 14 points/m2 for the measurement of the area of roofs of residential and industrial buildings. The data used for the study are the LiDAR data freely available by the Spanish Institute of Geography (IGN), which is offered according to the INSPIRE Directive. The results obtained show different behaviors for roofs with an area below and over 200 m2. While the use of low-density point clouds (0.5 point/m2) presents significant errors in the estimation of the area, the use of point clouds with higher density (1 or 2 points/m2) implies a great improvement in the area results, with no significant difference among them. The use of high-density point clouds (14 points/m2) also implies an improvement of the results, although the accuracy does not increase in the same ratio as the increase in density regarding 1 or 2 points/m2. Thus, the conclusion reached is that the geometrical characterization of roofs requires data acquisition with point density of 1 or 2 points/m2, and that higher point densities do not improve the results with the same intensity as they increase computation time.

Land surface temperature (LST) is a key parameter for land cover analysis and for many fields of study, for example, in agriculture, due to its relationship with the state of the crop in the evaluation of natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and geothermal areas, in desertification studies, or in the estimation of several variables of environmental interest such as evapotranspiration. The computation of LST from satellite imagery is possible due to the advances in thermal infrared technology and its implementation in artificial satellites. For example, Landsat 8 incorporates Operational Land Imager(OLI) and Thermal InfraRed Sensor(TIRS)sensors the images from which, in combination with data from other satellite platforms (such as Terra and Aqua) provide all the information needed for the computation of LST. Different methodologies have been developed for the computation of LST from satellite images, such as single-channel and split-window methodologies. In this paper, two existing single-channel methodologies are evaluated through their application to images from Landsat 8, with the aim at determining the optimal atmospheric conditions for their application, instead of searching for the best methodology for all cases. This evaluation results in the development of a new adaptive strategy for the computation of LST consisting of a conditional process that uses the environmental conditions to determine the most suitable computation method.

This paper presents a multidisciplinary methodology to evaluate an underground wine cellar structure using non-invasive techniques. In particular, a historical subterranean wine cellar that presents a complex structure and whose physical properties are unknown is recorded and analyzed using geomatics and geophysics synergies. To this end, an approach that integrates terrestrial laser scanning and ground penetrating radar is used to properly define a finite element-based structural model, which is then used as a decision tool to plan architectural restoration actions. The combination of both techniques implies the registration of external and internal information that eases the construction of structural models. Structural simulation for both stresses and deformations through FEM allowed identifying critical structural elements under great stress or excessive deformations. In this investigation, the ultimate limit state of cracking was considered to determine allowable loads due to the brittle nature of the material. This allowed us to set limit values of loading on the cellar structure in order to minimize possible damage.

This paper proposes a photogrammetric procedure able to determine out-of-plane movements experienced by a masonry structure subjected to a quasi-static cyclic test. The method tracks the movement of circular targets by means of a coarse-to-fine strategy. These targets were captured by means of a photogrammetric network, made up of four cameras optimized following the precepts of a zero-, first-, and second-order design. The centroid of each circular target was accurately detected for each image using the Hough transform, a sub-pixel edge detector based on the partial area effect, and a non-linear square optimization strategy. The three-dimensional (3D) coordinates of these targets were then computed through a photogrammetric bundle adjustment considering a self-calibration model of the camera. To validate the photogrammetric method, measurements were carried out in parallel to an ongoing test on a full-scale two-story unreinforced masonry structure (5.4 × 5.2 × 5.4-m) monitored with more than 200 contact sensors. The results provided by the contact sensors during one of the load phases were compared with those obtained by the proposed approach. According to this accuracy assessment, the method was able to determine the out-of-plane displacement during the quasi-static cyclic test with a sub-pixel accuracy of 0.58.

This paper is focused on the Middle Paleolithic rock shelter called “Abrigo de San Lázaro”, placed in the Eresma River valley (Segovia, Spain). In this area, a multisource geomatic approach is used. On the one hand, the external envelope of the shelter has been digitalized by the means of an efficient combination between aerial photogrammetry and laser scanning (static and mobile). On the other hand, the ground penetrating radar and the electric tomography were used with the aim of evaluating the inner disposition of the shelter. The combination of both digitalization (external and internal) has allowed for improving the knowledge of the site characteristics that, in turn, will facilitate the future excavation works. The results of these studies allow archaeologists to know new data for a better understanding of the site formation (geology of the site, sedimentary potential, rock shelter dimensions, etc.) and the events that took place in it (knowing its historical evolution, especially the interaction between man and the environment). Additionally, the information obtained from these studies is very useful to plan future excavation works on the site.

This paper presents an efficient solution, based on a wearable mobile laser system (WMLS), for the digitalization and modelling of a complex cultural heritage building. A procedural pipeline is formalized for the data acquisition, processing and generation of cartographic products over a XV century palace located in Segovia, Spain. The complexity, represented by an intricate interior space and by the presence of important structural problems, prevents the use of standard protocols such as those based on terrestrial photogrammetry or terrestrial laser scanning, making the WMLS the most suitable and powerful solution for the design of restoration actions. The results obtained corroborate with the robustness and accuracy of the digitalization strategy, allowing for the generation of 3D models and 2D cartographic products with the required level of quality and time needed to digitalize the area by a terrestrial laser scanner.

This paper presents a new approach for energetic analyses of traffic accidents against fixed road elements using close-range photogrammetry. The main contributions of the developed approach are related to the quality of the 3D photogrammetric models, which enable objective and accurate energetic analyses through the in-house tool CRASHMAP. As a result, security forces can reconstruct the accident in a simple and comprehensive way without requiring spreadsheets or external tools, and thus avoid the subjectivity and imprecisions of the traditional protocol. The tool has already been validated, and is being used by the Local Police of Salamanca (Salamanca, Spain) for the resolution of numerous accidents. In this paper, a real accident of a car against a fixed metallic pole is analysed, and significant discrepancies are obtained between the new approach and the traditional protocol of data acquisition regarding collision speed and absorbed energy.

Identifying and quantifying the potential causes of damages to a construction and evaluating its current stability have become an imperative task in today’s world. However, the existence of variables, unknown conditions and a complex geometry hinder such work, by hampering the numerical results that simulate its behavior. Of the mentioned variables, the following can be highlighted: (i) the lack of historical information; (ii) the mechanical properties of the material; (iii) the initial geometry and (iv) the interaction with other structures. Within the field of remote sensors, the laser scanner and photogrammetric systems have become especially valuable for construction analysis. Such sensors are capable of providing highly accurate and dense geometrical data with which to assess a building’s condition. It is also remarkable, that the latter provide valuable radiometric data with which to identify the properties of the materials, and also evaluate and monitor crack patterns. Motivated by this, the present article investigates the potential offered by the combined use of photogrammetric techniques (DIC and SfM), as well as geometrical (NURBs and Hausdorff distance) and numerical strategies (FEM) to assess the origin of the damage (through an estimation of the initial conditions) and give an evaluation of the current stability (considering the deformation and the damage).

This review examines the available data regarding the positive effects of microencapsulated essential oils (EOs) on the nutrition, metabolism, and possibly the methane emission of horses. A literature review was conducted on the effect of microencapsulated (EOs) on the health of horses. The information comprises articles published in recent years in indexed journals. The results indicate that mixtures of microencapsulated EOs may be beneficial to equine health due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, as well as their effects on enteric methane production, nutrient absorption, and immune system enhancement. Moreover, encapsulation stabilizes substances such as EOs in small doses, primarily by combining them with other ingredients.