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Improving the quality of tree planting material for carbon sequestration through reforestation can help solve environmental problems, including the need to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of using humic substances in combination with rhizosphere microorganisms Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 and Pseudomonas sp. 4CH as a means to stimulate the growth of seedlings of pine, poplar, large-leaved linden, red oak, horse chestnut, and rowan. Humic substances stimulated the growth of shoots and roots of pine, large-leaved linden, and horse chestnut seedlings. The effects of bacteria depended on both plant and bacteria species: Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 showed a higher stimulatory effect than Pseudomonas sp. 4CH on pine and linden, and Pseudomonas sp. 4CH was more effective in the case of chestnut. An additive effect of humates and Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 on the growth rate of pine and linden saplings was discovered. Poplar, red oak, and rowan seedlings were unresponsive to the treatments. The growth-stimulating effects of the treatments are discussed in connection with the changes in carbon, chlorophyll, and nitrogen contents in plants. The results show the need for further research in bacterial species capable of stimulating the growth of plant species that were unresponsive in the present experiments.

The formation of apoplastic barriers is important for controlling the uptake of water and ions by plants, thereby influencing plant growth. However, the effects of plant growth-promoting bacteria on the formation of apoplastic barriers, and the relationship between these effects and the ability of bacteria to influence the content of hormones in plants, have not been sufficiently studied. The content of cytokinins, auxins and potassium, characteristics of water relations, deposition of lignin and suberin and the formation of Casparian bands in the root endodermis of durum wheat ( Triticum durum Desf.) plants were evaluated after the introduction of the cytokinin-producing bacterium Bacillus subtilis IB-22 or the auxin-producing bacterium Pseudomonas mandelii IB-Ki14 into their rhizosphere. The experiments were carried out in laboratory conditions in pots with agrochernozem at an optimal level of illumination and watering. Both strains increased shoot biomass, leaf area and chlorophyll content in leaves. Bacteria enhanced the formation of apoplastic barriers, which were most pronounced when plants were treated with P. mandelii IB-Ki14. At the same time, P. mandelii IB-Ki14 caused no decrease in the hydraulic conductivity, while inoculation with B. subtilis IB-22, increased hydraulic conductivity. Cell wall lignification reduced the potassium content in the roots, but did not affect its content in the shoots of plants inoculated with P. mandelii IB-Ki14. Inoculation with B. subtilis IB-22 did not change the potassium content in the roots, but increased it in the shoots.

The search for ways to increase plant productivity in drought conditions is of fundamental importance, since soil moisture deficiency is widespread and leads to critical crop losses. The aim of this study was to identify the effects of plant growth-promoting bacteria and humic substances on the growth, chlorophyll, flavonoids, nitrogen balance index, and concentration of cytokinins and abscisic acids in wheat plants grown in the laboratory under conditions of water deficit. An increase in the accumulation of plant mass was shown during the treatment of wheat plants with Pseudomonas plecoglossicida 2,4-D and humic substances in these conditions. It has been shown that stimulating plant growth is associated with increased root growth, which leads to an increase in the nitrogen balance index, chlorophyll, and flavonoid concentrations in treated plants. The detected increase in the concentration of chlorophyll in plants treated with P. plecoglossicida 2,4-D correlated with a decrease in the concentration of abscisic acid in plant shoots and, in plants treated with humates, with an increase in the concentration of cytokinins in shoots. The higher efficiency of treating plants with a combination of bacteria and humic substances than with any of them individually may be associated with the additive effect of these treatments on the hormonal balance.

Both rhizosphere bacteria and humic substances (HSs) can promote plant growth when applied individually and even greater effects of their combination have been demonstrated. We aimed to elucidate the relative importance of the stimulating effects of HSs on bacterial growth and the effects of the combination of bacteria and HSs on plants themselves. The effects of humic (HA) and fulvic acids (FA) (components of humic substances) on the growth of Pseudomonas plecoglossicida 2,4-D in vitro were studied. We also studied the effects of this bacterial strain and HSs applied individually or in combination on the growth of wheat plants. Although the 2,4-D strain showed low ability to use HSs as the sole source of nutrition, the bacterial growth rate was increased by FA and HA, when other nutrients were available. HSs increased root colonization with bacteria, the effect being greater in the case of HA. The effects on roots and shoots increased when bacteria were associated with HSs. FA+ 2,4-D was more effective in stimulating shoot growth, while HA + 2,4-D was in the case of root growth. The latter effect is likely to be beneficial under edaphic stresses.

Pseudomonas mandelii strain IB-Ki14 has recently been shown to strengthen the apoplastic barriers of salt-stressed plants, which prevents the entry of toxic sodium. It was of interest to find out whether the same effect manifests itself in the absence of salinity and how this affects the hydraulic conductivity of barley plants. Berberine staining confirmed that the bacterial treatment enhanced the deposition of lignin and suberin and formation of Casparian bands in the roots of barley plants. The calculation of hydraulic conductance by relating transpiration to leaf water potential showed that it did not decrease in bacteria-treated plants. We hypothesized that reduced apoplastic conductivity could be compensated by the higher conductivity of the water pathway across the membranes. This assumption was confirmed by the results of the immunolocalization of HvPIP2;5 aquaporins with specific antibodies, showing their increased abundance around the areas of the endodermis and exodermis of bacteria-treated plants. The immunolocalization with antibodies against auxins and abscisic acid revealed elevated levels of these hormones in the roots of plants treated with bacteria. This root accumulation of hormones is likely to be associated with the ability of Pseudomonas mandelii IB-Ki14 to synthesize these hormones. The involvement of abscisic acid in the control of aquaporin abundance and auxins-in the regulation of and formation of apoplast barriers-is discussed.

Much attention is paid to the relationship between bacteria and plants in the process of the bioremediation of oil-contaminated soils, but the effect of petroleum degrading bacteria that synthesize phytohormones on the content and distribution of these compounds in plants is poorly studied. The goal of the present field experiment was to study the effects of hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria that produce auxins on the growth, biochemical characteristics, and hormonal status of barley plants in the presence of oil, as well as assessing the effect of bacteria and plants separately and in association with the content of oil hydrocarbons in the soil. The treatment of plants with strains of Enterobacter sp. UOM 3 and Pseudomonas hunanensis IB C7 led to an increase in the length and mass of roots and shoots and the leaf surface index, and an improvement in some parameters of the elements of the crop structure, which were suppressed by the pollutant. The most noticeable effect of bacteria on the plant hormonal system was a decrease in the accumulation of abscisic acid. The data obtained indicate that the introduction of microorganisms weakened the negative effects on plants under abiotic stress caused by the presence of oil. Plant-bacteria associations were more effective in reducing the content of hydrocarbons in the soil and increasing its microbiological activity than when either organism was used individually.

Plant-bacteria consortia are more effective in bioremediation of petroleum contaminated soil than when either organism is used individually. The reason for this is that plant root exudates promote growth and activity of oil degrading bacteria. However, insufficient attention has been paid to the ability of bacteria to influence root exudation. Therefore, the influence of barley plants and/or bacterial inoculation ( Pseudomonas hunanensis IB C7 and Enterobacter sp. UOM 3) on the content of organic acids, sugars and plant hormones in the eluate from clean and oil-polluted sand was studied separately or in combination. These strains are capable of oxidizing hydrocarbons and synthesizing auxins. Concentrations of organic acids and sugars were determined using capillary electrophoresis, and hormones by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. In the absence of plants, no sugars were detected in the sand, confirming that root exudates are their main source. Introducing bacteria into the sand increased total contents of organic compounds both in the presence and absence of oil. This increase could be related to the increase in auxin amounts in the sand eluate, as well as in plants. The results indicate that bacteria are able to increase the level of root exudation. Since auxins can promote root exudation, bacterial production of this hormone is likely responsible for increased concentrations of soluble organic compounds in the sand. Bacterial mediation of root exudation by affecting plant hormonal status should be considered when choosing microorganisms for phytoremediation.

Although changes in root architecture in response to the environment can optimize mineral and water nutrient uptake, mechanisms regulating these changes are not well-understood. We investigated whether P deprivation effects on root development are mediated by abscisic acid (ABA) and its interactions with other hormones. The ABA-deficient barley mutant Az34 and its wild-type (WT) were grown in P-deprived and P-replete conditions, and hormones were measured in whole roots and root tips. Although P deprivation decreased growth in shoot mass similarly in both genotypes, only the WT increased primary root length and number of lateral roots. The effect was accompanied by ABA accumulation in root tips, a response not seen in Az34 . Increased ABA in P-deprived WT was accompanied by decreased concentrations of cytokinin, an inhibitor of root extension. Furthermore, P-deficiency in the WT increased auxin concentration in whole root systems in association with increased root branching. In the ABA-deficient mutant, P-starvation failed to stimulate root elongation or promote branching, and there was no decline in cytokinin and no increase in auxin. The results demonstrate ABA's ability to mediate in root growth responses to P starvation in barley, an effect linked to its effects on cytokinin and auxin concentrations.

Although salinity inhibits plant growth, application of appropriate rhizosphere bacteria can diminish this negative effect. We studied one possible mechanism that may underlie this beneficial response. Wheat plants were inoculated with Bacillus subtilis IB-22 and Pseudomonas mandelii IB-Ki14 and their consequences for growth, water relations, and concentrations of the hormone abscisic acid (ABA) were followed in the presence of soil salinity. Salinity alone increased ABA concentration in wheat leaves and roots and this was associated with decreased stomatal conductance, but also with chlorophyll loss. Bacterial treatment raised ABA concentrations in roots, suppressed accumulation of leaf ABA, decreased chlorophyll loss, and promoted leaf area and transpiration. However, water balance was maintained due to increased water uptake by inoculated plants, brought about in part by a larger root system. The effect may be the outcome of ABA action since the hormone is known to maintain root extension in stressed plants. Root ABA concentration was highest in salt-stressed plants inoculated with B. subtilis and this contributed to greater root hydraulic conductivity. We conclude that bacteria can raise salt resistance in wheat by increasing root ABA, resulting in larger root systems that can also possess enhanced hydraulic conductivity thereby supporting better-hydrated leaves.

The phytoremediation of soil contaminated with petroleum oil products relies on co-operation between plants and rhizosphere bacteria, including the plant growth-promoting effect of the bacteria. We studied the capacity of strains of Pseudomonas , selected as oil degraders, to produce plant hormones and promote plant growth. Strains with intermediate auxin production were the most effective in stimulating the seedling growth of seven plant species under normal conditions. Bacterial seed treatment resulted in about a 1.6-fold increase in the weight of barley seedlings, with the increment being much lower in other plant species. The strains P. plecoglossicida 2.4-D and P. hunanensis IB C7, characterized by highly efficient oil degradation (about 70%) and stable intermediate in vitro auxin production in the presence of oil, were selected for further study with barley. These strains increased the seed germination percentage approximately two-fold under 5% oil concentration in the soil, while a positive effect on further seedling growth was significant when the oil concentration was raised to 8%. This resulted in a 1.3-1.7-fold increase in the seedling mass after 7 days of growth, depending on the bacterial strain. Thus, strains of oil-degrading bacteria selected for their intermediate and stable production of auxin were found to be effective ameliorators of plant growth inhibition resulting from petroleum stress.