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In ultrashort-pulsed laser processing, surface modification is subject to complex laser and scanning parameter studies. In addition, quality assurance systems for monitoring surface modification are still lacking. Automated laser processing routines featuring machine learning (ML) can help overcome these limitations, but they are largely absent in the literature and still lack practical applications. This paper presents a new methodology for machine learning classification of self-organized surface structures based on light microscopic images. For this purpose, three application-relevant types of self-organized surface structures are fabricated using a 300 fs laser system on hot working tool steel and stainless-steel substrates. Optical images of the hot working tool steel substrates were used to learn a classification algorithm based on the open-source tool Teachable Machine from Google. The trained classification algorithm achieved very high accuracy in distinguishing the surface types for the hot working steel substrate learned on, as well as for surface structures on the stainless-steel substrate. In addition, the algorithm also achieved very high accuracy in classifying the images of a specific structure class captured at different optical magnifications. Thus, the methodology proposed represents a simple and robust automated classification of surface structures that can be used as a basis for further development of quality assurance systems, automated process parameter recommendation, and inline laser parameter control.

The objective of this study is the investigation of the transferability of the material extrusion process from conventional to robotic fabrication on silicone build plates for use in Enhanced Multipoint Moulding with Additive Attachments. Therefore, the study is based on two series of experiments. The first series of tests used a conventional plant extended by a silicone construction platform. In comparison, a six-axis industrial robot was chosen to produce the test specimens in the second series of tests. The comparisons of adhesion strengths and relative shape deviations are used to validate the transferability. The results of the tests show a very good transferability of the process from conventional to robotic production. Whilst angular specimen geometries can be transferred directly, for round specimen geometries, the results show a need for further adaptation to the robot kinematics. The round specimen geometries showed deviations in the surface quality caused by an over-extrusion in the robotic manufacturing. This over-extrusion results from the slicing process in combination with the robot control and may be avoided through further optimisation of the process parameters. Overall, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first that successfully demonstrates the transfer of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) from a conventional system to manufacturing using robots on silicone build plates for the use in Enhanced Multipoint Moulding with Additive Attachments.

A method of computer modeling of a surface relief is proposed, and its efficiency and high accuracy are proven. The method is based on the mathematical model of surface microrelief, using titanium alloy Ti6Al4V subjected to processing with femtosecond pulses as an example. When modeling the examples of microrelief, changes in the shape of segments-cycles of the studied surface processes, which correspond to separate morphological formations, were taken into account. The proposed algorithms were realized in the form of a computer simulation program, which provides for a more accurate description of the geometry of the microrelief segments. It was proven that the new method significantly increases the efficiency of the analysis procedure and processing of signals that characterize self-organized relief formations.

The effect of chemical solvents on the wetting state of laser-structured surfaces over time is systematically examined in this paper. By using a 300-fs laser, nanostructures were generated on Ti6Al4V, subsequently cleaned in an ultrasonic bath with different solvents and stored in ambient air. The static contact angle showed significant differences for cleaning with various solvents, which, depending on the applied cleaning and time, amounted up to 100°. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses reveal that the cleaning of the laser-structured surfaces affects the surface chemistry and the aging behavior of the surfaces, even with highly volatile solvents. The effect of the chemical surface modification is particularly noticeable when using alcohols for cleaning, which, due to their OH groups, cause highly hydrophilic behavior of the surface after one day of storage. Over the course of 14 days, enrichment with organic groups from the atmosphere occurs on the surface, which leads to poorer wetting on almost every structured surface. In contrast, the cleaning in hexane leads to a fast saturation of the surface with long-chain carbon groups and thus to a time-independent hydrophobic behavior.

The microstructuring of surfaces is a highly researched field that is aimed at enhancing the tribological behavior of sliding surfaces such as artificial joints, which are subject to wear. Lubrication of the joint interface plays a key role in the wear process, although the mechanisms of lubrication are quite complex. In order to improve the lubrication, the surfaces of the articulating components can be modified by pulsed femtosecond-laser microstructuring. Through microstructuring, the apparent dynamic viscosity of the synovial fluid between the artificial joint can be increased due to its non-Newtonian properties. This may lead to better hydrodynamic lubrication and, therefore, reduced particle abrasion. Femtosecond laser-induced microstructures were investigated in a modified rheometer setup featuring a reduced gap size in order to reproduce and measure the interface between fluid and implant surface more accurately. As a test fluid, a synovial fluid substitute was used. The study has shown that an increase in the viscosity of the synovial fluid substitute can be achieved by microstructuring. Compared to a smooth implant surface, the apparent viscosity of the synovial fluid substitute increased by over 30% when ring-shaped microstructures of 100 µm diameter with an aspect ratio of 0.66 were implemented.

Surface structuring is a key factor for the tailoring of proper cell attachment and the improvement of the bone-implant interface anchorage. Femtosecond laser machining is especially suited to the structuring of implants due to the possibility of creating surfaces with a wide variety of nano- and microstructures. To achieve a desired surface topography, different laser structuring parameters can be adjusted. The scanning strategy, or rather the laser pulse overlap and scanning line overlap, affect the surface topography in an essential way, which is demonstrated in this study. Ti6Al4V samples were structured using a 300 fs laser source with a wavelength of 1030 nm. Laser pulse overlap and scanning line overlap were varied between 40% and 90% over a wide range of fluences (F from 0.49 to 12.28 J/cm²), respectively. Four different main types of surface structures were obtained depending on the applied laser parameters: femtosecond laser-induced periodic surface structures (FLIPSS), micrometric ripples (MR), micro-craters, and pillared microstructures. It could also be demonstrated that the exceedance of the strong ablation threshold of Ti6Al4V strongly depends on the scanning strategy. The formation of microstructures can be achieved at lower levels of laser pulse overlap compared to the corresponding value of scanning line overlap due to higher heat accumulation in the irradiated area during laser machining.

This study investigated the wetting behavior of Ti6Al4V surfaces that were groove-structured by means of femtosecond laser irradiation. The material was treated under ambient air conditions by use of a laser wavelength of 1030 nm and a pulse duration of 300 fs. Highly accurate structures with a gap width of 20 µm, a gap depth of 10 µm, and varying strut widths (1−300 µm) were generated and the contact angles in parallel and perpendicular direction were determined using sessile drop method with ultrapure water 1, 8, and 15 days after irradiation. All deterministic surfaces exhibited a pronounced contact angle change over time. The structures showed a strong anisotropic wetting behavior with a maximum contact angle aspect ratio of 2.47 at a strut width of 40 µm and a maximum difference between the parallel and perpendicular contact angle of 47.9° after 1 day.

Nano- and microstructured titanium surfaces have recently attracted attention in the field of regenerative medicine because of the influence which surface characteristics such as roughness and wettability can have on cellular processes. This study focuses on the correlation of surface properties (wettability and nano/micro texture) of laser-structured Ti6Al4V samples with pronounced cell adhesion. Samples were structured with multiple laser parameters in order to create a range of surface properties. Surface characterization was performed by contact angle measurements 1 and 7 days after laser processing. The arithmetic mean roughness of the material surface in an area (Sa) was determined by means of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Immediately after wettability tests of the laser-structured surfaces, in vitro experiments with human MG-63 osteoblasts were carried out. For this purpose, the cell morphology and actin cytoskeleton organization were analyzed using CLSM and scanning electron microscopy. On rough microstructures with deep cavities, the cell growth and spreading were inhibited. An improved cellular adhesion and growth on nanostructured and sinusoidal microstructured surfaces could be demonstrated, regardless of hydrophilicity of the surfaces.