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Simple Summary: Comparisons across equine social behaviour studies are currently impeded by the lack of a universally accepted ethogram. Therefore, this ethogram introduces standardised definitions for thirty-seven distinct equine social behaviours, drawing from existing ethograms and refining definitions through meticulous video observations. The definitions consider contextual cues, such as ear position and facial expressions, and communicative nuances. Video examples enhance clarity by capturing the dynamic flow and sequence of social interactions. This approach allows researchers to observe temporal aspects like sequence, duration, and rhythm, providing a detailed representation of equine social behaviours. Standardized definitions, along with video illustrations, promote clear communication among researchers and enable consistent cross-study comparisons, which, in turn, can contribute to a better understanding of how husbandry practices and health conditions impact equine social behaviour, aiding in the assessment and optimization of management practices to enhance equine welfare. Equine social behaviour studies face challenges stemming from the absence of a comprehensive ethogram with unequivocal standardised definitions and the resulting limits to data comparison across studies. To address these constraints, this ethogram offers researchers a standardised framework, defining thirty-seven distinct equine social behaviours supplemented by video examples for enhanced clarity. These definitions amalgamate insights from existing ethograms and are fine-tuned through meticulous video observations, encompassing contextual cues such as distinguishing between aggressive and playful circling based on ear position and facial expressions and communicative nuances to provide a detailed representation of equine social behaviours. Video recordings complement the standardised definitions by capturing the dynamic flow and sequence of social interactions. By providing a dynamic and detailed representation, videos allow researchers to observe the temporal aspects of behaviour, including the sequence, duration, and rhythm of interactions. These detailed data are crucial for interpreting social behaviours and unravelling the complexities of equine societies. Standardized and video-illustrated definitions of equine social behaviour facilitate clear and consistent communication between researchers, enabling cross-study comparisons regarding the impact of husbandry practices and health conditions on equine social behaviour, which, in turn, can facilitate the assessment and optimisation of management practices and equine welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Food Finding Test (FFT) olfactory paradigm without overnight food deprivation examined olfaction in aged (16-months-old) animals. Ethograms of three goal-directed behaviors towards hidden food (sniffing, finding and eating) elicited in male and female 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and their age-matched C57BL/6 wild-type counterparts with normal aging were meticulously analyzed with the support of video recordings. The new FFT protocol elicited longer ethograms than previously reported with the standard deprivation protocol. However, it was sensitive when identifying genotype- and sex-dependent olfactory signatures for the temporal patterns of slow sniffing, finding, and eating in AD and males, but it had a striking consistency in females. The impact of forced social isolation was studied and it was found to exert sex-dependent modifications of the ethogram, mostly in males. Still, in both sexes, a functional derangement was detected since the internal correlations among the behaviors decreased or were lost under isolated conditions. In conclusion, the new paradigm without overnight deprivation was sensitive to sex (males), genotype (AD), and social context (isolation-dependent changes) in its ethogram and functional correlation. At the translational level, it is a warning about the impact of isolation in the advanced stages of the disease, paying notable attention to the male sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In this study, the common social and communicative behaviors of the Fonni's Dog maintained under different outdoor conditions were investigated in order to improve the scant knowledge currently available on the behavior features of this dog breed. The preliminary results obtained here show that both dogs confined to kennels and free-ranging ones showed a strong collaborative motivation with the owner. This indicates a behavior consistent with the attitude of the Fonni's Dog. This study aimed to investigate the common social and communicative behaviors of the Fonni's Dog under different outdoor conditions. For this study, 70 adult dogs (3–7 years; 32 intact males, 38 intact females) belonging to the Fonni's breed were used. A total of 35 dogs were kept in kennels and 35 were free-ranging dogs in their sheep/goat livestock units. A behavioral repertoire was adapted from the literature and an ethogram was filled in for each dog. All dogs were evaluated in the presence of the owner. Fisher's exact test, following Bonferroni's correction, was used to test possible differences in the categorical variables (presence or absence of the behavior) between free-ranging dogs and dogs kept in kennels. The study revealed that several categories of the dogs' body language were associated with the management condition. However, the breed motivations (guarding and defense of the territory) were satisfied both in kennel and in the animals who were free in the property. The current study suggests a good behavioral balance of the Fonni's Dogs which could be attributed to correct communication between dogs and owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Constructing an ethogram is the basis and prerequisite for an in-depth study of animal behavior and its complex relationship with the environment. The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) is the flagship species of endangered amphibians. In order to understand all of the behaviors and ecological laws of A. davidianus during the breeding period, this study monitored the behavior and related environmental factors of A. davidianus during its breeding period and constructed an ethogram of A. davidianus during the breeding period based on the PAE (Posture-Act-Environment) coding system. To accurately indicate the environmental conditions and thresholds required for reproductive behavior, quantitative data on water quality and habitat factors that have a significant impact on A. davidianus's behavior were included in the coding framework, such as water temperature (WT), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), etc. The ethogram included all behaviors of A. davidianus during the breeding period for the first time, totaling 45 behavioral patterns, grouped into 9 categories, which were discriminated and coded based on the corresponding posture, action, and environmental factors when each behavioral pattern occurred. The results lay a foundation for revealing the ecological law of A. davidianus's reproductive behavior and the suitable habitat; provide a scientific basis for optimizing the breeding technology of A. davidianus and protecting its wild population; and provide a reference for quantitative ethogram research on amphibians. The PAE (Posture-Act-Environment) coding system is a behavior coding system that divides the study of animal behavior into postures, actions, and the corresponding environmental factors, and they are coded correspondingly. It determines the analysis dimension to standardize the study of behavior. To investigate the behavior of A. davidianus during the breeding period, as well as their related postures, actions, and required environmental conditions, this study monitored the behavior of four pairs of A. davidianus in a simulated natural breeding pool using an infrared image monitoring system and recorded the changes in water quality during this process using a water quality monitoring system. The process of reproductive behaviors was observed and recorded with the random sampling method and the focal animal sampling method to classify and code the behaviors, and the ethogram of A. davidianus during the breeding period was constructed based on the PAE coding system. The result showed that 10 postures, 33 actions, 11 environments, and 45 behavioral patterns were differentiated and defined, which were classified into 9 categories of behaviors according to the behavioral function. Among these categories, five were distinguished as behaviors unique to the reproductive period, which include sand pushing, showering, courtship, oviposition, and parental care. The remaining four categories were daily behaviors: exercise, feeding, rest, and miscellaneous behaviors. The quantitative data on water quality and habitat factors that had a significant impact on the behavior of A. davidianus, such as water temperature (WT), pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO), were included in the coding framework, which more accurately expresses the environmental conditions and thresholds required for the breeding behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine-assisted activities (EAAs) are considered a suitable innovative rehabilitative practice for children with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While standardized scales have been previously used as a tool to evaluate the effects of EAAs on different domains of functioning in ASD children, few studies have considered an ethological approach as a means to describe human–horse interactions in the context of ASD. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the behavior of 19 children with ASD, in comparison with 19 typically developing children (TD), during EAA sessions. We developed an ethogram from the video recordings to assess spatial relationships, social interactions, and communicative behaviors displayed by the child toward the horse, as well as the occurrence of problem behaviors. Results indicate that children's behaviors during EAA sessions are modulated by sex and age, while previous children's experience with EAAs appeared to improve interpersonal distance and horse handling. Results from this study highlight the importance of exploring children's behavioral responses during animal-assisted activities through direct measurements. This may allow linking the quality/strength of the child–horse relationship to the benefits obtained by the child, particularly in the social/communicative domain, a core symptom of ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Horses are highly social animals that preferably live in stable social groups and form long-term affiliative bonds. However, although their need for social interaction has not changed with domestication, domestic horses are often housed in individual stables with limited social contact with other horses or in group housing with regular changes in their group composition. Thus, this review aims to provide an overview of social ethograms to facilitate the inclusion of social behaviour in equine welfare assessment. A literature review yielded 27 papers that studied equine adult social behaviour using a well-defined ethogram. Social interactions were observed in 851 horses living in groups of 9.1 (mean +/− 6.8 s.d., range: 2–33) horses. A total of 40 (mean: 12.8/paper, range: 2–23) social behaviours were described, of which 60% (24/40) were agonistic, 30% (12/40) affiliative, 7.5% (3/40) investigative and 2.5% (1/40) neutral. The 27 papers focused predominantly on socio-negative interactions by including 67.7% agonistic and only 26% affiliative, 5.1% investigative and 1.2% neutral social behaviours in their research. The strong emphasis on agonistic behaviour contrasts sharply with the rarity of agonistic behaviour in stable horse groups and the well-established importance of affiliative interactions for equine welfare. Therefore, to advance the assessment of horses' welfare, the ethogram needs to be refined to reflect the nuanced and complex equine social behaviour better and consider more affiliative and also ambivalent and socially tolerant interactions. Sociality is an ethological need of horses that remained unchanged by domestication. Accordingly, it is essential to include horses' social behavioural requirements and the opportunity to establish stable affiliative bonds in equine management systems and welfare assessment. Thus, this systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date analysis of equine intraspecific social ethograms. A literature review yielded 27 papers that met the inclusion criteria by studying adult (≥2 years) equine social behaviour with conspecifics using a well-defined ethogram. Social interactions were observed in 851 horses: 320 (semi-)feral free-ranging, 62 enclosed (semi-)feral and 469 domesticated, living in groups averaging 9.1 (mean +/− 6.8 s.d., range: 2–33) horses. The ethograms detailed in these 27 studies included a total of 40 (mean: 12.8/paper, range: 2–23) social behaviours, of which 60% (24/40) were agonistic, 30% (12/40) affiliative, 7.5% (3/40) investigative and 2.5% (1/40) neutral. The 27 publications included 67.7% agonistic and only 26% affiliative, 5.1% investigative and 1.2% neutral social behaviours in their methodology, thus focusing predominantly on socio-negative interactions. The strong emphasis on agonistic behaviours in equine ethology starkly contrasts with the rare occurrence of agonistic behaviours in stable horse groups and the well-established importance of affiliative interactions for equine welfare. The nuanced and complex equine social behaviour requires refinement of the ethogram with a greater focus on affiliative, ambivalent and indifferent interactions and the role of social tolerance in equine social networks to advance equine welfare assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Behavioural analysis can be one of the elements that allows an assessment of the conditions in which animals are kept and their welfare. Animals kept in farmed conditions should be able to freely express their typical behaviour. The aim of the present study was to create an ethogram of the reproductive behaviour of American mink kept in farmed conditions. Reproductive behaviours include: chasing the female, grasping her neck with the teeth, marking the local area, mounting the partner, and sniffing the neck, anal and genital areas. The obtained results indicate that the American mink can express some natural reproductive behaviour in breeding conditions, which may also be an indicator of the welfare of these animals. Ethograms can serve as benchmarks against which abnormal animal behaviour can be identified, and then normal behaviour can be restored by appropriately modifying the environment in which an individual resides. The aim of the present study was to create an ethogram of the reproductive behaviour of American mink kept in farmed conditions. The research material consisted of 12 one-year-old male American mink, pearl coloured, selected randomly from among the varieties of coloured mink on the farm, and 60 two-year-old females. The animals participating in the study were grouped into two breeding sets, each consisting of 30 females and 6 males. Reproductive rituals included chasing the female, grasping her neck with the teeth, marking the local area, mounting the partner, and sniffing the neck, anal and genital areas. The copulation times recorded in this study varied greatly, ranging from several minutes to over two hours. The obtained results indicate that the American mink can express some natural reproductive behaviour in breeding conditions, which may also be an indicator of the welfare of these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Calf roping is a rodeo event that involves the release, pursuit, lassoing and leg-tying of a calf by a rider on horseback. Welfare concerns for calves used in these events include distress and potential physical injuries. This study evaluated video footage of calf roping (also known as rope-and-tie) from two rodeos and assessed calves' behaviour to identify any signs of distress during five different phases of roping. Calves in the study showed signs of distress and fear across all stages of roping. These findings suggest that calves experience fear and distress in calf roping events, which can inform discussions of the welfare of calves used in rodeos. There are significant welfare concerns with the use of calves in calf roping (also known as rope-and-tie) events in rodeos. However, little work has been carried out to scientifically assess calves' behavioural responses to the stressors of these events. This study evaluated video footage of calves (n = 15) during roping events from two rodeos. An ethogram was created to assess behavioural parameters during five phases of a calf roping event: Chase, Lasso, Catch and Restraint, Leg Tie and Release. Six behavioural parameters were observed during each of the five phases: Ear position (Axial or Back Up/Down), Eye White, Leg Movement (Slow/Fast), Tail Position (Rigid/Swish/Relaxed), Vocalisation and Evasive Behaviour. The presence or absence of each behaviour during each phase of roping was documented. Chi-squared analysis found significant (p < 0.001) differences in the proportions of behaviours observed in all five phases of the event. Binary logistic regression was performed, and six behaviours were observed to be significant across all phases: Evasive Behaviour (p < 0.001), Vocalisation (p = 0.002) and Legs Fast (p = 0.016) were more likely to be observed in comparison to Ears Axial, which was used as a reference category. Eye White (p < 0.001), Legs Slow (p < 0.001) and Tail Relaxed (p < 0.001) were less likely to be observed than Ears Axial. This study found that calves exhibit signs of distress in all of the phases of calf roping, including the Release phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Artificial milk feeding in fattening lambs would promote the functionality of the reticular groove reflex in order to avoid the rumen fermentation of selected feed supplements included in the milk replacer. However, there is a lack of information of the behavioural and welfare effects of such practice. Therefore, we studied the effects of extending or not milk replacer feeding during fattening with a high concentrate diet on the behaviour of 16 non castrated male lambs of the Manchega breed (eight lambs were in the group that were fed daily a bottle of milk, and the other eight were in the fully weaned group) by means of a video recording system. Both groups consumed the same solid diet (concentrate plus cereal straw) and were kept under the same conditions. Weaned lambs showed longer resting episodes and a higher frequency of self-grooming, whereas unweaned lambs showed a higher frequency of interaction behaviour. From the interpretation of such behaviours in the conditions of the present study, we concluded that the welfare status was almost similar in both groups. There is a lack of information on the behavioural and welfare effects of sustaining artificial milk feeding in fattening lambs. Therefore, the present work aimed to study the effects of prolonged artificial milk feeding during fattening with a high concentrate diet on the behaviour of lambs. The behaviour of 16 non castrated male lambs of the Manchega sheep breed (eight lambs were in the group that were fed daily a bottle of milk, and the other eight were in the weaned group) was recorded with four fixed cameras just before bottle feeding (~8:30 a.m.) of the unweaned group till four hours later, every day for 7 weeks. The solid diet (pelleted concentrate plus cereal straw) and housing conditions were the same in both groups. Solid feeds were offered ad libitum. There were no differences between groups in time spent eating nor in drinking, playing, scratching and oral activity behaviours (p > 0.05), but resting episodes were longer in weaned lambs (p < 0.05). Weaned lambs presented a higher frequency of self-grooming behaviour (p < 0.05), while the unweaned group performed a higher frequency of interaction behaviour (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the behaviours of lambs that were fed daily a bottle of milk during the fattening period did not substantially differ from the weaned individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reptile behaviour and welfare are understudied in comparison with mammals. In this study, behavioural data on three species (Astrochelys radiata, Stigmochelys pardalis, Aldabrachelys gigantea) of tortoises were recorded before and after an environmental change which was anticipated to be positive in nature. The environmental changes differed for each population, but included a substantial increase in enclosure size, the addition of substrate material, and a change in handling procedure. A tortoise-specific ethogram was created to standardise data collection. Focal behaviour sampling was used to collect behavioural data. Changes in the duration of performance of co-occupant interaction and object interaction in the leopard (Stigmochelys pardalis) and Aldabra (Aldabrachelys gigantea) tortoises were observed following the environmental changes. The Shannon–Weiner diversity index did not yield a significant increase after the changes but had a numerical increase which was relatively greater for the leopard tortoise group, which had experienced the greatest environmental change. The leopard tortoises also demonstrated changes in a greater number of behaviours compared to the other species, and this was sustained over the study period. However, this included a behaviour indicative of negative affect: aggression. Whilst we are unable to conclude that welfare was improved by the management changes, there are suggestions that behavioural diversity increased, and some promotion of positive social behaviours occurred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ticks are important vectors of pathogens that endanger humans and animals. Study of their behavior under laboratory conditions is important for both predicting their behavior in natural conditions and understanding their involvement in transmission cycles of pathogens, which may lead to effective prevention of tick-borne disease transmission or establishment of effective preventive measures. The aim of our study was to describe the behavior of D. reticulatus ticks using laboratory assay. We focused on the description of individual behavioral units during their vertical movement. The assay consisted of glass beakers filled with sand and an embedded glass rod. We observed 10 different behavioral units, 4 of which have not yet been described: body posturing called "jogger", leg grooming, and body or leg jerking. The most frequent tick behavior observed was an upwards positioning of the two front legs while the body remained motionless (88.9%). Other common observations were both horizontal (63%) and vertical (58.0%) body posturing with all legs lowered, followed by questing behavior (51.9%). Ticks spent the most time questing (75.2%), crawling (54.7%), and grooming legs on the right side (23%). We did not observe any differences between males and females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Curculio glandium females associated with the pedunculate oak were investigated in order to fill the knowledge gap on acorn structure preferences and shell-hardening influence on ovipositional behavior and fecundity. Shell solidification progression of weekly harvested acorns was measured using penetration and force–deformation tests along with fruit mass within a time frame covering weevils' reproduction period. Captured females were offered regular acorns (uncracked, soft enough to drill into) and older seeds (with natural cracks) for behavior recordings and preferences tests. Young acorns and fruits ripe enough to be too hard for females to drill (artificially pierced and untouched) were used for egg output assessment throughout the shell-hardening progression. Experiments revealed that naturally cracked acorns were chosen significantly more often, which resulted in reduced drilling-phase duration. Egg number did not differ significantly before and after the threshold of acorn hardening; however, having passed it, females significantly more frequently deposited eggs in artificially pierced seeds. Results indicate the opportunistic nature of female preferences. Oviposition in cracked or pierced acorns facilitates the process and lowers competition for relatively shortly available soft and healthy seeds, the first of which reach impenetrability in the third week of August. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In recent years, the use of technologies to remotely monitor animal behaviour has increased. However, when they are used for the first time in a new species, validation is needed. Therefore, a tri-axial accelerometer was used to monitor lesser anteater (Tamandua tetradactyla) behaviour. First, the influence of using a vest on the animals' behaviour was evaluated. Second, correlations between video recordings and accelerometer data were made, allowing the researchers to obtain summary measures for each behaviour and a threshold to discriminate activity/inactivity events. Sensitivity and precision variables revealed the robustness of accelerometer monitoring. Third, animals responded to a reduction in enclosure complexity by increasing their activity. The relevance of the accelerometer was determined comparing data (activity level and activity cycle) with video recordings. The results indicate that an accelerometer attached to a vest is a reliable technology for monitoring the activity pattern of T. tetradactyla under semi-controlled environmental conditions. Accelerometers are a technology that is increasingly used in the evaluation of animal behaviour. A tri-axial accelerometer attached to a vest was used on Tamandua tetradactyla individuals (n = 10) at Biodiversity Park. First, the influence of using a vest on the animals' behaviour was evaluated (ABA-type: A1 and A2, without a vest; B, with a vest; each stage lasted 24 h), and no changes were detected. Second, their behaviour was monitored using videos and the accelerometer simultaneously (experimental room, 20 min). The observed behaviours were correlated with the accelerometer data, and summary measures (X, Y and Z axes) were obtained. Additionally, the overall dynamic body acceleration was calculated, determining a threshold to discriminate activity/inactivity events (variance = 0.0055). Then, based on a 24 h complementary test (video sampling every 5 min), the sensitivity (85.91%) and precision (100%) of the accelerometer were assessed. Animals were exposed to an ABA-type experimental design: A1 and A2: complex enclosure; B: decreased complexity (each stage lasted 24 h). An increase in total activity (%) was revealed using the accelerometer (26.15 ± 1.50, 29.29 ± 2.25, and 35.36 ± 3.15, respectively). Similar activity levels were detected using video analysis. The results demonstrate that the use of the accelerometer is reliable to determine the activity. Considering that the zoo-housed lesser anteaters exhibit a cathemeral activity pattern, this study contributes to easily monitoring their activities and responses to different management procedures supporting welfare programs, as well as ex situ conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Spiders are common predators found in almost every type of environment, and are used as model organisms in studies ranging from communication and signalling to biochemical studies on their silk. Orb spiders are particularly interesting, as their web provides a cost-effective way to obtain information on their foraging behaviour. However, studies on short-term behaviours including prey capture and escape behaviours are rare and usually take place in artificial settings, such as laboratories. In this study, we tested a simple methodology using tuning forks that can be used consistently and reliably in the field. The two tuning forks are capable of producing attack (440 Hz) and escape (256 Hz) responses from the spiders. We also used a metal wire as a mechanical stimulus for comparison, which as predicted, was less reliable. We demonstrate the usefulness of the methodology by quantitatively investigating how the size of the spider and the size of its web affect predatory and escape response rates in the autumn spider, although no significant effects of either were found. However, our results confirm the ease by which this simple method can be used to conduct behavioural studies of orb spiders in the wild. Spiders and their webs are often used as model organisms to study a wide range of behaviours. However, these behavioural studies are often carried out in the laboratory, and the few field studies usually result in large amounts of video footage and subsequent labour-intensive data analysis. Thus, we aimed to devise a cost- and time-effective method for studying the behaviour of spiders in the field, using the now almost forgotten method of stimulating webs with tuning forks. Our study looked at the viability of using 256 Hz and 440 Hz tuning forks to stimulate, anti-predatory and predatory responses in the orb web spider Metellina segmentata, respectively. To assess the consistency of the behaviours produced, we compared these to direct mechanical stimulation with a metal wire. The results suggest that the tuning forks produce relatively consistent behaviours within and between two years in contrast to the metal wire. We furthermore found no significant effects of spider length or web area on spider reaction times. However, we found significant differences in reaction times between escape and prey capture behaviours, and between tuning forks and the wire. Thus, we demonstrated the potential of tuning forks to rapidly generate quantitative data in a field setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The severity of sensory involution during aging is critical for perceiving and recognizing the world. In addition, sensory deficits significantly increase the risk of older adults' biological, mental, and social decline. Conversely, the loss of smell is an early biomarker of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's diseases. The worsening of these neurodegenerative diseases also involves physical deterioration, social deficits, and isolation. In the present translational work, a new food finding test (FFT) olfactory paradigm without food deprivation was used to investigate olfaction in old animals. The effects of social isolation in 12-months-old female 3xTg-AD mice, a genetic model of AD, and their age-matched wild-type counterparts, the gold-standard C57BL/6 mice, were also studied. The animals were placed in a test cage and were observed until reaching the criteria for three goal-directed behaviors, 'Sniffing', 'Finding' and 'Eating', towards the hidden food. Video recordings were analyzed blind to the genotype and social condition in order to determine the behaviors' ethogram and functional correlations. The results showed that the FFT paradigm without food deprivation elicited longer ethograms than previously reported with the standard overnight food deprivation protocol. However, it identified the genotype-dependent olfactory signatures in normal and AD-pathological aging. Social isolation slightly increased the latencies, but the olfactory signatures were preserved. However, a functional derangement was detected since the internal correlation among the three goal-directed behaviors was lost under isolation. In conclusion, the new paradigm without overnight deprivation was sensitive to genotype and isolation changes in the ethogram and function and can be used to study old animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Monkeys are at risk of performing abnormal behaviours in captivity: signs of poor well-being that are easily recognizable. For practical reasons, researchers typically pool different abnormal behaviours together. However, this is typically performed without assessing whether the behaviours are actually related to each other. Consequently, such subcategories may be misclassifying behaviours. Most importantly, using arbitrary subcategories may reduce their precision to measure animal welfare since different abnormal behaviours are likely to have distinct risk factors and treatments. We therefore investigated the validity of four previously used abnormal behaviour subcategories in laboratory rhesus monkeys (i.e., we assessed whether the subcategories were actually formed of behaviours that co-occurred). These included behaviours previously labelled 'self-injurious' (e.g., self-biting), 'self-stimulating' (e.g., hair-pulling), 'postural' (e.g., floating limb), and 'motor' (e.g., pacing). Using a large dataset on 19 different types of abnormal behaviour from over a thousand monkeys, we discovered that none of the subcategories analyzed were valid. Therefore, we reanalyzed the data to create four new valid subcategories that were formed of related behaviours. We additionally identified four behaviours that were not related to any other behaviour and should thus be categorized alone. Once replicated, using this new validated scheme will help researchers and laboratory staff study the conditions that trigger them and develop the most appropriate treatment strategies. Laboratory monkey ethograms currently include subcategories of abnormal behaviours that are based on superficial morphological similarity. Yet, such ethograms may be misclassifying behaviour, with potential welfare implications as different abnormal behaviours are likely to have distinct risk factors and treatments. We therefore investigated the convergent validity of four hypothesized subcategories of abnormal behaviours ('motor', e.g., pacing; 'self-stimulation', e.g., self-sucking; 'postural', e.g., hanging; and 'self-abuse', e.g., self-biting). This hypothesis predicts positive relationships between the behaviours within each subcategory. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) data on 19 abnormal behaviours were obtained from indoor-housed animals (n = 1183). Logistic regression models, controlling for sex, age, and the number of observations, revealed that only 1/6 'motor' behaviours positively predicted pacing, while 2/3 'self-abuse' behaviours positively predicted self-biting (one-tailed p-value < 0.05). Furthermore, 'self-stimulation' behaviours did not predict self-sucking, and none of the 'postural' behaviours predicted hanging. Thus, none of the subcategories fully met convergent validity. Subsequently, we created four new valid subcategories formed of comorbid behaviours. The first consisted of self-biting, self-hitting, self-injurious behaviour, floating limb, leg-lifting, and self-clasping. The second comprised twirling, bouncing, rocking, swinging, and hanging. The third comprised pacing and head-twisting, while the final subcategory consisted of flipping and eye-poking. Self-sucking, hair-plucking, threat-biting, and withdrawn remained as individual behaviours. We encourage laboratories to replicate the validation of these subcategories first, and for scientists working with other species to validate their ethograms before using them in welfare assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Pain recognition in calves is difficult. Pain is assessed either subjectively or objectively. Subjective pain assessment can be done using ethograms or pain scales, or by evaluation of changes of the facial expression due to pain. The problem with subjective pain assessment is that the evaluation of the amount of pain a calf is experiencing depends on the evaluation and the experience of the observer. Variables for the objective description of pain are assessment of biomarkers in the blood (e.g., cortisol or substance P), use of algometry to measure mechanical nociceptive thresholds, activity measurements by use of accelerometers and pedometers, use of infrared thermography, and the assessment of heart rate, heart rate variability, feed and water intake, or weight gain. Studies about pain recognition and pain management in calves mostly use more than one variable. Often a combination of subjective and objective measures is used to evaluate the level of pain calves are experiencing and to improve pain recognition. The evaluation and assessment of the level of pain calves are experiencing is important, as the experience of pain (e.g., due to routine husbandry procedures) severely affects the welfare of calves. Studies about the recognition of pain in calves, and especially pain management during and after common procedures, such as castration, dehorning, and disbudding, have been published. This narrative review discusses and summarizes the existing literature about methods for pain assessment in calves. First, it deals with the definition of pain and the challenges associated with the recognition of pain in calves. Then it proceeds to outline the different options and methods for subjective and objective pain assessment in calves, as described in the literature. Research data show that there are several tools suitable for the assessment of pain in calves, at least for research purposes. Finally, it concludes that for research purposes, various variables for the assessment of pain in calves are used in combination. However, there is no variable which can be used solely for the exclusive assessment of pain in calves. Also, further research is needed to describe biomarkers or variables which are easily accessible in the field practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Scientific knowledge concerning dromedary camel behavior and welfare is still limited. To date, providing pens with adequate shaded areas is not regulated in camel husbandry. The objectives of this study were to document whether dromedary camels have a preference for shade and describe how their behavior would change depending on the presence of shade in pens with different animal densities. Analyzing the behavior of camels kept at a permanent market in Doha, we found they had a preference for shade, and adequate shaded areas seemed to exert a positive effect on their behavioral repertoire. Camels in shade expressed more natural behaviors such as lying in sternal recumbency and ruminating, while those in the sun showed more walking and standing. Limited space allowance, instead, seemed to affect camel welfare, increasing the expression of stereotypic behavior (i.e., pacing). Overall, the results of this pilot study suggest that provision of adequate shaded areas could safeguard camel wellbeing under extremely hot conditions. This study aimed at documenting whether dromedary camels have a preference for shade and how their behavior would change depending on the presence of shade and variable space allowance. A total of 421 animals kept in 76 pens (66 with shelter (Group 1), and 10 without shelter (Group 2)) at the camel market in Doha (Qatar) were recorded for 1 min around 11:00 a.m. when the temperature was above 40 °C. The number of animals in the sun and shade and their behaviors were analyzed using an ad libitum sampling method and an ad hoc ethogram. The results of a chi-square test indicated that camels in Group 1 had a clear preference for shade (p < 0.001). The majority of Group 1 camels were indeed observed in the shade (312/421; 74.11%). These camels spent more time in recumbency and ruminating, while standing, walking, and self-grooming were more commonly expressed by the camels in the sun (p < 0.001). Moreover, locomotory stereotypic behaviors (i.e., pacing) increased as space allowance decreased (p = 0.002). Based on the findings of this pilot study, camels demonstrated a preference for shade; shade seemed to promote positive welfare, while overcrowding seemed to trigger stereotypy and poor welfare. Overall, our preliminary results are novel and provide evidence that shaded areas are of paramount importance for camel welfare. Further research, involving designed studies at multiple locations is needed to confirm these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In order to appreciate how alpacas function as guardian animals and how suitable they are in protecting a herd we first need to better understand how these animals behave while coexisting with other livestock. This study examined the field behaviour of two alpacas placed with 180 lambing ewes, including the level of diurnal activity, distances travelled and activity budgets. Alpacas generally behaved similarly in relation to diurnal activity levels and time spent on behaviours such as grazing, walking and standing. Alpacas and lambing ewes shared similar diurnal patterns in relation to levels of activity and were observed to flock together at night and camp in the same location. As a result of this study we were able to catalogue the range and frequency of field behaviours exhibited by alpacas cohabiting with lambing ewes. This data provides insight into how alpacas might behave in a guardian role, adds to the limited body of research in this area and may assist producers reduce predator-related livestock loss. A common strategy to reduce predator attack on livestock is the deployment of guardian alpacas. However, little research has been conducted on the behaviour of this species while housed with other livestock. This study monitored two male alpacas cohabitating with 180 lambing ewes in order to quantify field behaviour in two phases. Phase one assessed diurnal patterns of alpacas and lambing ewes using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) collars recording data over 41 days, in combination with observational recordings. Phase two developed an alpaca behavioural ethogram through continuous observations from 05:30 to 19:30 h over a 3-day period. The two alpacas shared similar behaviours with commonality of distance travelled, and both species exhibited an increase in activity level based on speed between the times of 05:00 and 17:00 h. The GNSS data indicated that the alpacas flocked with the ewes at night sharing the same resting location, however, would spend time during the day on the outskirts of the paddock. Alpacas were observed to spend the majority of the observation period in two behavioural states: grazing (57%) and resting (27%). As a result of this study we were able to catalogue a range and frequency of field behaviours which alpacas exhibit while cohabitating with lambing ewes. However, further research is needed to determine in more detail how these behaviours correspond with the effectiveness of this species as a livestock guardian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Treadmills have become a popular and important tool in various aspects of equestrianism. Habituation to treadmill locomotion has been investigated mainly in the biomechanic aspect. The behavioral aspect of habituation was seldom described; therefore, it was not clear if the habituation process was the same in horses with different temperaments and emotional responses to the handler. We assessed the results horses got in the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and negative emotional response tests, and their connection with behavior-related features of the habituation process. The four principal components in the examined horses were identified: "Flightiness," "Freeziness," "Curiosity," and "Timidity". We found that the features of Flightiness gradually decreased during habituation. A part of them increased again when the horses started a new challenge. Features of Freeziness and Curiosity showed strong stability throughout the whole habituation. Features of Timidity strongly increased when the treadmill was introduced; thus, the challenge was completely changed. The first entrance and work on a treadmill seemed to cause fright responses. We conclude that the habituation process should be adapted to the horse's temperament and emotionality. Such findings will improve handler safety and lead to increased horse welfare during habituation. A treadmill is an important tool in the equine analysis of gait, lameness, and hoof balance, as well as for the evaluation of horse rehabilitation or poor performance including dynamic endoscopy. Before all of these uses, horses have to be habituated to a treadmill locomotion. We used principal component analysis to evaluate the relationship between aspects of the horse's temperament and emotional response, and progress in the behavioral habituation to a treadmill. Fourteen horses were tested, by the same familiar handler, using the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and negative emotional response tests. Then, four stages of gradual habituation of the first work on a treadmill were conducted. Each time, the horse's behavior was filmed. Data obtained from ethograms and heart rate measurements were tested. Four principal components were identified in examined horses: "Flightiness", "Freeziness", "Curiosity", and "Timidity". Flightiness was connected with nervousness, agitation by new objects, and easy excitability, and gradually decreased of features during habituation. Timidity was associated with a lack of courage and stress in new situations, and those features strongly increased when the treadmill was introduced. Freeziness and Curiosity features showed strong stability throughout the whole habituation. The results of this study provide evidence for a connection between temperament, emotional response, and habituation process in a horse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral instability is a concept used for indicating environmental stress based on behavioral traits. This study investigates the possibility of using behavioral instability as a tool for assessing behavioral reaction norms in captive animals. The understanding of personality in captive animals can be a useful tool in the development of enrichment programs in order to improve animal welfare. In this study, a case study examined how olfactory stimuli affected the behavior of two polar bears Ursus maritimus in captivity. Using continuous focal sampling throughout the day, it was found that for many behaviors, the individuals responded differently to stimuli, indicating that there was a difference in behavioral reaction norms. This is shown using multiple approaches. One approach used traditional methods for behavioral analyses, and the other approach used the concept of behavioral instability as a new quantitative method. This study demonstrates the utility of behavioral instability as a new quantitative method for investigating behavioral reaction norms, expanding the possibility of comparing behavioral responses between species. Moreover, it is shown that outliers—that cause asymmetric distributions—should not be removed in behavioral analysis, without careful consideration. In conclusion, the theoretical implications and future perspectives of behavioral instability are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: It is essential that elephant workers monitor the stress levels of their animals to uphold high standards of welfare. This can be done quickly and efficiently by observing elephant behaviour, however, the consistency of this approach is likely to vary between workers. While this variation has been tested in zoo elephants when observations were carried out by experienced observers, the consistency of observations made by non-experienced observers on the much larger population of Asian elephants working in Southeast Asia has yet to be explored. By constructing a list of elephant working behaviours, we employed three volunteer observers with no experience of elephant research to record the behaviour of Asian elephants working in Myanmar. We then tested the similarity between observations collected by the three observers, as well as the consistency that individual observers could repeatedly recognise the same behaviour. Overall, observers recognised the same behaviour from the videos and were highly consistent across repeated observations. These results suggest that the behaviours tested may represent useful indicators for welfare assessment, and that non-experienced observers can meaningfully contribute to the monitoring of elephant welfare. Recognising stress is an important component in maintaining the welfare of captive animal populations, and behavioural observation provides a rapid and non-invasive method to do this. Despite substantial testing in zoo elephants, there has been relatively little interest in the application of behavioural assessments to the much larger working populations of Asian elephants across Southeast Asia, which are managed by workers possessing a broad range of behavioural knowledge. Here, we developed a new ethogram of potential stress- and work-related behaviour for a semi-captive population of Asian elephants. We then used this to collect observations from video footage of over 100 elephants and evaluated the reliability of behavioural welfare assessments carried out by non-specialist observers. From observations carried out by different raters with no prior experience of elephant research or management, we tested the reliability of observations between-observers, to assess the general inter-observer agreement, and within-observers, to assess the consistency in behaviour identification. The majority of ethogram behaviours were highly reliable both between- and within-observers, suggesting that overall, behaviour was highly objective and could represent easily recognisable markers for behavioural assessments. Finally, we analysed the repeatability of individual elephant behaviour across behavioural contexts, demonstrating the importance of incorporating a personality element in welfare assessments. Our findings highlight the potential of non-expert observers to contribute to the reliable monitoring of Asian elephant welfare across large captive working populations, which may help to both improve elephant wellbeing and safeguard human workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]