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Social structure is based on the availability of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus. To cover these needs of society, several solutions of different scales of infrastructures coexist. The construction of infrastructure is capital-intensive; therefore, investment risk is always a consideration. In this paper, we try to evaluate the investment risk by interest rates (IR). We show that IR is a key indicator, which includes multiple parameters of prosperity expressing the political and economic status quo of the society. The selection of a particular scale influences the required capital and is thus one of the most critical decisions. Water supply infrastructure is one of the foundations of society, and the selection of the optimal scale of such infrastructure is often a great challenge in civil engineering. As a case study, we analyse three different scales of water supply infrastructures for the area of West Mani (Greece), i.e., dam, water ponds, and seawater desalination. We evaluate each case by the capital intensity by performing stochastic simulations of interest rates and identify the optimal solution as the one with the smallest median unit cost, in this case, the water ponds. In order to assess the impact of the development level of a country on the resulting unit cost stochastic properties we apply the optimal solution to various countries with different development levels and IR. We show that IR in the least developed countries, being generally higher and more variable, increases the unit cost, including its variability, which ultimately indicates higher investment risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of renewable energy for desalination started in the 1980s, in order to provide a sustainable water supply in windy/sunny areas with water shortages. Nevertheless, this initiative has been generally limited to the R&D field and prototypes, with few units operating under real conditions. The research tradition in this field carried out by the Canary Islands Institute of Technology, based on pilot facilities, resulted in wide expertise on practical issues, as well as a deep knowledge on the state of the art. This paper deals with the most relevant technical aspects to be considered in the optimal design and operation of wind/photovoltaic (PV)-powered reverse-osmosis (RO) systems, focusing on practical indications: appropriate pre-treatment, the use and selection of the RO energy recovery system (ERD), the selection of an energy storage system, key recommendations for the O&M actions in wind- and PV-powered RO systems (extracted from the experience of operating different units in remote locations (PV and RO) and coastal areas (wind and RO)), and an identification of the pros and cons of hybrid systems. A selection of economic data is given, indicating the main aspects of the minimization of the cost of water. Finally, the paper mentions the latest advances in the involved technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information regarding domestic water consumption is vital, as the Kathmandu Valley will soon be implementing the Melamchi Water Supply Project; however, updated information on the current situation after the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (GEQ) is still lacking. We investigated the dynamics of domestic water consumption pre- and post-GEQ. The piped water supply was short, and consumption varied widely across the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) branches and altitude. The reduction in piped, ground, and jar water consumption and the increase in tanker water consumption post-GEQ appeared to be due to the impact of the GEQ. However, the impact did not appear to be prominent on per capita water consumption, although it was reduced from 117 to 99 L post-GEQ. Piped, ground, and tanker water use were associated with an increase and jar water use was associated with a decrease in water consumption. Despite improvements in quantity, inequality in water consumption and inequity in affordability across wealth status was well established. This study suggests to KUKL the areas of priority where improvements to supply are required, and recommends an emphasis on resuming performance. Policy planners should consider the existing inequity in affordability, which is a major issue in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water consumption continues to grow globally, and it is estimated that more than 160% of the total global water volume will be needed to satisfy the water requirements in ten years. In this context, non-conventional water resources are being considered to overcome water scarcity and reduce water conflicts between regions and sectors. A bibliometric analysis and literature review of 81 papers published between 2000 and 2020 focused on south-east Spain were conducted. The aim was to examine and re-think the benefits and concerns, and the inter-connections, of using reclaimed and desalinated water for agricultural and urban-tourist uses to address water scarcity and climate change impacts. Results highlight that: (1) water use, cost, quality, management, and perception are the main topics debated by both reclaimed and desalinated water users; (2) water governance schemes could be improved by including local stakeholders and water users in decision-making; and (3) rainwater is not recognized as a complementary option to increase water supply in semi-arid regions. Furthermore, the strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats (SWOT) analysis identifies complementary concerns such as acceptability and investment in reclaimed water, regulation (cost recovery principle), and environmental impacts of desalinated water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the importance of the cost of dam water use in hydroelectric generators according to the International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) and Management Accounting. Not valuing the use of water from dams would imply undervaluing energy generation service, leading to a lack of reasonability in the Financial Statements of electricity generators. For this reason, it is vital to recognize that dam water has a cost that directly impacts the Statement of Financial Position as an asset and later, in energy generation and commercialization, its cost will impact the statement of profit or loss, according to the IFRS as good accounting and financial practices around the world. Said cost will also be an important indicator for rationalizing consumption, defining public policy, or determining energy tariffs. An empirical study is conducted for Colombia and Norway, two of the main countries in the world whose primary source of energy generation is water. The results evidence the need for hydroelectric generators to present the cost of their hydric reserve as intangibles inventories because of its potential capacity to generate electric power. Additionally, there is a positive and significant relationship between the cost of water and the price of energy, and a negative relationship between the price of energy and dam levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Future agricultural development will be challenged by the impacts of climate change on water, which are expected to be particularly strong in southern European regions. Thus, exploring interrelations between agriculture and water under climate change is essential to frame informed policies that ensure sustainable water management while enhancing food production. Nevertheless, studies that address future agriculture development focus on climate-induced changes in crop productivity and often disregard the water dimension. In this research, we have conducted a sensitivity analysis of agricultural development to drivers of water use in Andalusia in 2050 based on outcomes from the CAPRI-Water model. The results from the analysis show that water cost is the most determinant factor in shaping agricultural land, offsetting the impact of the driver of water availability. In contrast, irrigation water use is driven not only by water cost but also by irrigation efficiency. The magnitude of the sensitivity to these drivers differs significantly across crops. Policies aimed at improving resource use efficiency can contribute to strengthening the resilience and adaptation capacity of future agricultural systems to climate change. To achieve this goal, the policies must consider crop sensitivity to irrigation costs and the potential rebound effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]