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Simple Summary: The proteolytic system consists of compounds that, similar to "scissors", cut proteins found in bee cells (e.g., to activate these proteins) or released by pathogens. During these reactions, reactive oxygen species are created and then removed by antioxidants. The actions of the proteolytic and antioxidant systems are enhanced by biomarkers. These compounds are produced mainly in the fat body and then released into the hemolymph. We determined the activities of these compounds in various localizations/segments of the fat body and in the hemolymph in females with increased reproductive potential, i.e., queens and rebels, and in normal (sterile non-rebel) workers. Rebels are workers who resemble the queen in terms of anatomical, behavioural, and physiological features. It was revealed that the activities of these compounds in the rebels were between those of queens and normal workers. Normal workers had higher activities of the proteolytic and antioxidant systems in the fat body and hemolymph than the other females. These results are important for understanding the functioning of the fat body, the stress ecology, and the formation of the different castes of Apis mellifera females. The proteolytic and antioxidant systems are important components of humoral immunity, and these biomarkers indicate the immune status. These compounds are synthesized in the bees' fat body and released into the hemolymph. Their functions maintain the organism's homeostasis and protect it against adverse environmental factors (including pathogens). We determined the activities of acidic, neutral, and alkaline proteases and their inhibitors, as well as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and the level of total antioxidant potential (TAC). These compounds were investigated in the fat body and hemolymph in the females with increased reproductive potential, i.e., queens and rebels, and in normal (non-reproductive sterile non-rebel) workers. The phenoloxidase (PO) activities were determined in the hemolymph. The normal workers had higher activities of proteases and their inhibitors, SOD and CAT, in the fat body and hemolymph, compared to the queens and rebels. The protease inhibitors were not usually active in the queens. As we predicted, the rebels revealed values between those of the queens and normal workers. The highest activities of proteases and antioxidants were identified in the fat body from the third tergite in comparison with the sternite and the fifth tergite. These results are important for oxidative stress ecology and give a better understanding of the functioning of the fat body and the division of labor in social insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Communication in a colony of social insects, such as the honeybee, is possible thanks to the pheromones secreted by all individuals. Pheromones are produced and secreted by the glands. Examples of such structures are Nasonov and tergal glands. Nasonov glands are characteristic of worker bees, while tergal glands are primarily found in queens. There are situations in the colony in which the queen and her pheromones are missing. In these instances, the larvae develop into rebels, which are reproductive workers. We therefore assumed that the rebels would have a reduced Nasonov gland and developed tergal glands. Our assumption turned out to be correct. These discoveries bring us closer to explaining the evolutionary formation of different castes of honeybees. Social insect societies are characterized by a high level of organization. This is made possible through a remarkably complex array of pheromonal signals produced by all members of the colony. The queen's pheromones signal the presence of a fertile female and induce daughter workers to remain sterile. However, the lack of the queen mandibular pheromone leads to the emergence of rebels, i.e., workers with increased reproductive potential. We suggested that the rebels would have developed tergal glands and reduced Nasonov glands, much like the queen but contrary to normal workers. Our guess turned out to be correct and may suggest that the rebels are more queen-like than previously thought. The tergal gland cells found in the rebels were numerous but they did not adhere as closely to one another as they did in queens. In the rebels, the number of Nasonov gland cells was very limited (from 38 to 53) and there were fat body trophocytes between the glandular cells. The diameters of the Nasonov gland cell nuclei were smaller in the rebels than in the normal workers. These results are important for understanding the formation of the different castes of Apis mellifera females, as well as the division of labor in social insect societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Immune mechanisms in insects include cellular and humoral defenses. One of these cellular defense mechanisms is phagocytosis. The humoral defense components are produced in the fat body cells, the development of which depends on the juvenile hormone (JH) titers and vitellogenin (Vg) concentration. These mechanisms also regulate caste formation. In a colony, a queen, a worker, or a rebel can develop from eggs of the same genome. Rebels are reproductive workers that can lay eggs while maintaining tasks inside and outside the colony the same as sterile workers. The aim of our studies was to determine the phagocytic index, JH titer, Vg concentration, the number of oenocytes (fat body cells), and their size in the rebels and to compare them to those in normal workers. The rebels were characterized by high phagocytic indices, JH and Vg levels, and increased numbers and sizes of oenocytes in the fat body cells in comparison to the normal workers. These characteristics can be viewed as an evolutionary adaptation of these reproductive workers to life in a eusocial society. The physiological state of an insect depends on efficiently functioning immune mechanisms such as cellular and humoral defenses. However, compounds participating in these mechanisms also regulate reproductive caste formation and are responsible for reproductive division of labor as well as for labor division in sterile workers. Divergent reaction of the same genotype yielding reproductive queens and worker castes led to shaping of the physiological and behavioral plasticity of sterile or reproductive workers. Rebels that can lay eggs while maintaining tasks inside and outside the colony exhibit both queen and worker traits. So, we expected that the phagocytic index, JH3 titer, and Vg concentration would be higher in rebels than in normal workers and would increase with their age. We also assumed that the numbers of oenocytes and their sizes would be greater in rebels than in normal workers. The rebels and the normal workers were collected at the age of 1, 7, 14, and 21 days, respectively. Hemolymph and fat bodies were collected for biochemical and morphological analyses. The high levels of JH, Vg, and the phagocytic index, as well as increased numbers and sizes of oenocytes in the fat body cells demonstrate the physiological and phenotypic adaptation of rebels to the eusocial life of honeybees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study offers a new approach for studying biblical myth in two directions: first, by expanding the scope of investigation beyond the clearly mythological elements to other areas of biblical literature, and second, by drawing comparisons to classical Chinese literature. This article thus reconsiders the relationship between myth and history in both biblical and Chinese literature, while seeking to broaden the endeavor of the comparative method in biblical studies. Two examples are offered: (1) the story of Moses's call narrative and his relationship with Aaron in Exodus in light of the story of Xiang Liang and Xiang Ji in the Shiji; (2) the story of Saul and David in 1 Samuel compared with the story of Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Both comparisons demonstrate the operation of Claude Lévi-Strauss's inversion principle. Conclusions regarding each of these literatures are presented separately, followed by cross-cultural insights and shared aspects in the study of myth, historiography, and religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]