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This study investigated lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) transfer in three dairy farming areas in the Mantaro river headwaters in the central Peruvian Andes and at varying distances from the mining complex at La Oroya. At each of these sites, the transfer of trace metals from the soil to raw milk was estimated, and a hazard assessment for lead and cadmium was carried out in scenarios of minimum, average, and maximum milk consumption in a Peruvian population aged 2–85. Pb and Cd were quantified by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Significantly, the concentrations of lead and cadmium were found to exceed the maximum limits recommended by the World Health Organization, with a positive geospatial trend correlated with the distance from mining activity. Both Pb and Cd were found to be transferred through the soil–pasture–milk pathway, with the primary source of Cd being phosphate-based fertilizers used in pasture improvement. Pb was found to be the most significant contributor to the Hazard Index (HI) with those under 19 years of age and over 60 recording an HI of >1, with infants being the most vulnerable group due to their greater milk consumption in relation to their body weight. A marginal increase in contamination was observed in the dry season, indicating the need for studies to be expanded over several annual cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human exposure to foodborne inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) is a growing concern. However, identifying potential hazards linked to NP ingestion often requires long-term exposure in animals. Owing these constraints, intestinal organoids are a promising alternative to in vivo experiments; as such, an in vitro approach should enable a rapid and reliable assessment of the effects of ingested chemicals on the gut. However, this remains to be validated for inorganic substances. In our study, a transcriptomic analysis and immunofluorescence staining were performed to compare the effects of food-grade TiO2 (fg-TiO2) on enteroid-derived monolayers (EDMs) from murine intestinal organoids to the known impacts of TiO2 on intestinal epithelium. After their ability to respond to a pro-inflammatory cytokine cocktail was validated, EDMs were exposed to 0, 0.1, 1, or 10 µg fg-TiO2/mL for 24 h. A dose-related increase of the muc2, vilin 1, and chromogranin A gene markers of cell differentiation was observed. In addition, fg-TiO2 induced apoptosis and dose-dependent genotoxicity, while a decreased expression of genes encoding for antimicrobial peptides, and of genes related to tight junction function, was observed. These results validated the use of EDMs as a reliable model for the toxicity testing of foodborne NPs likely to affect the intestinal barrier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogenic amines (BAs), which are mainly generated by the microbial decarboxylation of amino acids, are important nitrogen compounds in fermented foods because of their toxicology. However, amino acids, the precursors of BAs, also play an important role in generating volatile and non-volatile metabolites, which are strongly associated with quality indicators for foods. Bacillus subtilis is one of dominant fermentative microorganism in various fermented foods and is well known as a BA-producing bacterium. In this study, B. subtilis strains which have different BAs-producing capacities, higher level of BAs production strain (BH) and lower level of BAs production strain (BL), were applied to compare the formations of volatile and non-volatile metabolite profiles according to cultivation times. In this study, histamine, putrescine, and spermidine were detected in all strains, however, 2-phenylethylamine was detected only in BH. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was applied to investigate the difference of metabolic profiles according to strains. In BH, some amino acids (phenylalanine, leucine, and threonine) and related volatile metabolites (3-methylbutanoic acid, pyrazines, styrene, and 1H-indole) were produced higher levels. On the other hand, BL produced significantly higher contents of metabolites associated with metabolism of fatty acids and nucleotides. It is necessary to consider the formation of metabolites in terms of quality as well as that of BAs during fermentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the conference session summarized in this article was to bring together international experts on food toxicology and food safety and share the current scientific knowledge on these topics. The presentations covered a wide range of interdisciplinary issues, including (i) the impact of diet on body weight and health outcomes including results from animal models of carcinogenesis, (ii) methods for microbial oil extraction, (iii) food processing and its impact on food safety and health, (iv) novel compounds to avoid mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products, and (v) the safety of cannabidiol in food supplements based on Cannabis sativa extracts. Some of the conclusions of the presentations included that correct food choices may impact on the risk of non-communicable diseases such as cancer, that food processing may have an influence on health, by either reducing or increasing risks, and that research regarding novel compounds is important, which may have preventive but also detrimental effects on health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continuous or frequent ingestion of fried foods containing cytotoxic/mutagenic/genotoxic lipid oxidation products (LOPs) may present significant human health risks; such toxins are generated in thermally stressed polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-rich culinary frying oils (CFOs) during standard frying practices. Since monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids (MUFAs and SFAs, respectively) are much less susceptible to peroxidation than PUFAs, in this study CFOs of differential unsaturated fatty acid contents were exposed to laboratory-simulated shallow-frying episodes (LSSFEs). Firstly, we present a case study exploring the time-dependent generation of aldehydic LOPs in CFO products undergoing LSSFEs, which was then used to evaluate the relative potential health risks posed by them, and also to provide suitable recommendations concerning their safety when used for frying purposes. Sunflower, rapeseed, extra-virgin olive and coconut oils underwent LSSFEs at 180 °C: Samples were collected at 0–90 min time-points (n = 6 replicates per oil). Aldehydes therein were determined by high-resolution 1H NMR analysis at 400 and 600 MHz operating frequencies. For one of the first times, CFO LOP analysis was also performed on a non-stationary 60 MHz benchtop NMR spectrometer. 1H NMR analysis confirmed the thermally promoted, time-dependent production of a wide range of aldehydic LOPs in CFOs. As expected, the highest levels of these toxins were produced in PUFA-rich sunflower oil, with lower concentrations formed in MUFA-rich canola and extra-virgin olive oils; in view of its very high SFA content, only very low levels of selected aldehyde classes were generated in coconut oil during LSSFEs. Secondly, 1H NMR results acquired are discussed with regard to the suitability and validity of alternative, albeit routinely employed, spectrophotometric methods for evaluating the peroxidation status of CFOs and lipid-containing foods. Thirdly, an updated mini-review of the toxicological properties of and intake limits for LOPs, and deleterious health effects posed by their ingestion, is provided. In conclusion, exposure of PUFA-rich CFOs to high-temperature frying practices generates very high concentrations of aldehydic LOP toxins from thermally promoted, O2-powered, recycling peroxidation processes; these toxins penetrate into and hence are 'carried' by fried foods available for human consumption. Such toxins have the capacity to contribute towards the development and progression of non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs) if cumulatively ingested by humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, there is a growing interest in fortifying food products with flavonoids to enhance health benefits. Naringenin, naringin, hesperetin, and dihydromyricetin are four typical flavonoids constituting a natural part of our diet. In the present work, they were fortified into a chia oil cookie model to evaluate their thermal stability during baking as well as their impact on antioxidant capacity and toxicant formation. Among them dihydromyricetin was the most unstable one (only 36.1% of which was left after baking at 180 °C for 20 min) and led to a loss of brightness in cookie. However, the antioxidant capacity of cookie fortified with dihydromyricetin was significantly enhanced compared with untreated cookie; on the other hand, dihydromyricetin showed the strongest effect to attenuate lipid and protein oxidation as well as decrease the level of fluorescent advanced glycation endproducts and carboxymethyl lysine in cookie model. Overall, among the four selected flavonoids, dihydromyricetin might be the most promising functional bakery additive enhancing the antioxidant capacity while decreasing the formation of toxicants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Infections are usually either asymptomatic or develop mild symptoms that are self-limited, but infections in immunosuppressed persons can be severe. Infections in pregnant women can cause serious health problems in the child such as mental retardation and blindness. Infection with T. gondii in immunocompetent adults can lead to impaired eyesight. Toxoplasmosis has ranked very highly in two studies of death and disability attributable to foodborne pathogens. The consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing T. gondii tissue cysts and the consumption of raw vegetables or water contaminated with T. gondii oocysts from cat feces is most frequently associated with human illness. The risk of acquiring a Toxoplasma infection via food varies with cultural and eating habits in different human populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple and rapid multi-mycotoxin method for the determination of 17 mycotoxins simultaneously is described in the present survey on durum and soft wheat pasta samples. Mycotoxins included in the study were those mainly reported in cereal samples: ochratoxin-A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZON), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-AcDON and 15-AcDON), nivalenol (NIV), neosolaniol (NEO), fusarenon-X, (FUS-X), T-2 toxin (T-2) and HT-2 toxin (HT-2), fumonisin B1 and B2 (FB1 and FB2), and four emerging mycotoxins: three enniatins (ENA, ENA1, and ENB), and beauvericin (BEA). Twenty-nine samples were analyzed to provide an overview on mycotoxin presence: 27 samples of durum wheat pasta, and two samples of baby food. Analytical results concluded that trichothecenes showed the highest incidence, mainly DON, NIV, and HT-2 toxin, followed by ZON and ENB, while NEO, FUS-X, OTA, AFB1, and FUM were not detected in any sample. The highest contents corresponded to ENB and ranged from 91.15 μg/kg to 710.90 μg/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of mycotoxins in food represents a severe threat for public health and welfare, and poses relevant research challenges in the food toxicology field. Nowadays, food toxicologists have to provide answers to food-related toxicological issues, but at the same time they should provide the appropriate knowledge in background to effectively support the evidence-based decision-making in food safety. Therefore, keeping in mind that regulatory actions should be based on sound scientific findings, the present opinion addresses the main challenges in providing reliable data for supporting the risk assessment of foodborne mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxicity of nanoparticles (NPs) upon oral exposure has been studied in animals using physiological changes, behavior, histology, and blood analysis for evaluation. The effects recorded include the combination of the action on cells of the exposed animal and the reaction of the microorganisms that populate the external and internal surfaces of the body. The importance of these microorganisms, collectively termed as microbiota, for the health of the host has been widely recognized. They may also influence toxicity of NPs but these effects are difficult to differentiate from toxicity on cells of the gastrointestinal tract. To estimate the likelihood of preferential damage of the microbiota by NPs the relative sensitivity of enterocytes and bacteria was compared. For this comparison NPs with antimicrobial action present in consumer products were chosen. The comparison of cytotoxicity with Escherichia coli as representative for intestinal bacteria and on gastrointestinal cells revealed that silver NPs damaged bacteria at lower concentrations than enterocytes, while the opposite was true for zinc oxide NPs. These results indicate that silver NPs may cause adverse effects by selectively affecting the gut microbiota. Fecal transplantation from NP-exposed animals to unexposed ones offers the possibility to verify this hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Botulism is a serious foodborne neuroparalytic disease, caused by botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), produced by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Seven toxin serotypes (A-H) have been described. The majority of human cases of botulism are caused by serotypes A and B followed by E and F. We report here a group of serotype B specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) capable of binding toxin under physiological conditions. Thus, they serve as capture antibodies for a sandwich (capture) ELISA. The antibodies were generated using recombinant peptide fragments corresponding to the receptor-binding domain of the toxin heavy chain as immunogen. Their binding properties suggest that they bind a complex epitope with dissociation constants (KD's) for individual antibodies ranging from 10 to 48 × 10-11 M. Assay performance for all possible combinations of capture-detector antibody pairs was evaluated and the antibody pair resulting in the lowest level of detection (L.O.D.), ∼20 pg/mL was determined. Toxin was detected in spiked dairy samples with good recoveries at concentrations as low as 0.5 pg/mL and in ground beef samples at levels as low as 2 ng/g. Thus, the sandwich ELISA described here uses mAb for both the capture and detector antibodies (binding different epitopes on the toxin molecule) and readily detects toxin in those food samples tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many foods contain toxins as a naturally-occurring constituent or, are formed as the result of handling or processing, the incidence of adverse reactions to food is relatively low. The low incidence of adverse effects is the result of some pragmatic solutions by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other regulatory agencies through the creative use of specifications, action levels, tolerances, warning labels and prohibitions. Manufacturers have also played a role by setting limits on certain substances and developing mitigation procedures for process-induced toxins. Regardless of measures taken by regulators and food producers to protect consumers from natural food toxins, consumption of small levels of these materials is unavoidable. Although the risk for toxicity due to consumption of food toxins is fairly low, there is always the possibility of toxicity due to contamination, overconsumption, allergy or an unpredictable idiosyncratic response. The purpose of this review is to provide a toxicological and regulatory overview of some of the toxins present in some commonly consumed foods, and where possible, discuss the steps that have been taken to reduce consumer exposure, many of which are possible because of the unique process of food regulation in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soybean oil is the second most exported oil from the United States and South America, and is widely marketed as a cooking oil product containing numerous health benefits for human consumers. However, culinary oils with high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) contents, are known to produce high quantities of lipid oxidation products (LOPs), including toxic aldehydes upon exposure to high-temperature frying episodes. Previous studies have demonstrated causal links between aldehyde ingestion and inhalation with deleterious health perturbations, including mutagenic and carcinogenic effects, along with cardiovascular and teratogenic actions. In this study, aldehydic LOPs were detected and quantified in commercially available samples of soybean, avocado, corn and extra-virgin olive oil products before and after their exposure to laboratory-simulated laboratory frying episodes (LSSFEs) using high-resolution 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis. Results acquired demonstrated that PUFA-rich soybean and corn oils gave rise to the highest concentrations of oil aldehydes from the thermo-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, whereas monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)-laden avocado and olive oils were much more resistant to this peroxidation process, as expected. Multivariate chemometrics analyses provided evidence that an orthogonal component pattern of aldehydic LOPs featuring low-molecular-mass n-alkanals such as propanal, and 4-oxo-alkanals, arises from thermo-oxidation of the ω-3 fatty acid (FA) linolenic acid (present in soybean oils at levels of ca. 7% (w/w)), was able to at least partially distinguish this oil from corresponding samples of thermally-stressed corn oil. Despite having a similar total PUFA level, corn oil has only a negligible ω-3 FA content, and therefore generated significantly lower levels of these two aldehyde classes. In view of the adverse health effects associated with dietary LOP ingestion, alternative methodologies for the incorporation of soybean oils within high-temperature frying practices are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence and associations of Ag, As, Ba, Bi, Cd, Co, Cu, Cs, Hg, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sr, Tl, U, V, W, and Zn, including data that have not been previously reported on Be, Hf, In, Li, Mo, Nb, Sn, Ta, Th, Ti and Zr, and the sum of (14) rare earth elements (ƩREE), were studied in a spatially diverse collection of the B. edulis caps, stipes, and whole fruiting bodies using a validated procedure with measurement by quadrupole ICP-MS. Toxic Cd and Pb were in B. edulis at concentrations below limits set by the European Union in regulations for raw cultivated mushrooms, while Ag, As, Hg, Sb, Tl, and U, which are not regulated, were at relatively low or typical levels as is usually found in mushrooms from an unpolluted area. The elements Be, Bi, Ga, Ge, Hf, In, Nb, Ta, Th, and W, and also ƩREEs, were found at relatively low concentrations in B. edulis , i.e., with levels from below 0.1 to below 0.01 mg kg -1 dw, and for Ʃ14 REEs, the median was 0.31 mg kg -1 dw. The composite samples of caps showed Ag, Cd, Cu, Cs, Ga, Ge, Hg, Mo, Ni, Rb, Sb, Ti, and Zn at higher concentrations than stipes, while Ba, Co, Hf, Sr, Tl, and Zr were found at higher concentrations in stipes than caps ( p < 0.05). Mushrooms were characterized by a low coefficient of variation (CV) of below 20%, between sites for concentrations of As, Cu, Ge, Hg, Ni, V, and Zn, while substantial differences (CV > 100%) were found for Ba, Bi, Co, Hf, Zr, and ƩREEs, and an intermediate variation was found for Sr, W, and U. Principal component analysis performed on mushrooms allowed differentiation with respect to 13 collection sites and separation of a consignment that was specifically contaminated, possibly due to a legacy pollution, with significantly higher levels of Ba, Co, Ga, Li, Nb, Ni, Sr, Th, Ti, Y, Zr, and ƩREEs, and another due to possible recent pollution (Pb-gasoline and also Ni); two due to geological contamination because of the Bi, In, Sc, Sb, Sn, Ta, V and W; and one more, the Sudety Mts. site, which was considered as "geogenic/anthropogenic" due to Ag, As, Be, Cd, Cs, Ni, Pb, Rb, Tl, and U.

Easily sourced mucus from various plant parts is an odorless, colorless and tasteless substance with emerging commercial potential in agriculture, food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals due to its non-toxic and biodegradable properties. It has been found that plant-derived mucilage can be used as a natural thickener or emulsifier and an alternative to synthetic polymers and additives. Because it is an invisible barrier that separates the surface from the surrounding atmosphere, it is used as edible coatings to extend the shelf life of fresh vegetables and fruits as well as many food products. In addition to its functional properties, mucilage can also be used for the production of nanocarriers. In this review, we focus on mucus extraction methods and its use as a natural preservative for fresh produce. We detailed the key properties related to the extraction and preservation of food, the mechanism of the effect of mucus on the sensory properties of products, coating methods when using mucus and its recipe for preserving fruit and vegetables. Understanding the ecological, economic and scientific factors of production and the efficiency of mucus as a multi-directional agent will open up its practical application in many industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food can be contaminated by various types of contaminants such as mycotoxins and toxic heavy metals. Therefore, it is very likely that simultaneous intake of more than one type of food contaminant by consumers may take place, which provides a strong rationale for investigating the combined toxicities of these food contaminants. Patulin is one of the most common food-borne mycotoxins, whereas cadmium is a representative of toxic heavy metals found in food. The liver and kidneys are the main target organ sites for both patulin and cadmium. We hypothesized that simultaneous exposure to patulin and cadmium could produce synergistic hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Alpha mouse liver 12 (AML12) and Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 (HEK293) cell lines together with a mouse model were used to explore the combination effect and mechanism. The results demonstrated, for the first time, that the co-exposure of liver or renal cells to patulin and cadmium caused synergistic cytotoxicity in vitro and enhanced liver toxicity in vivo. The synergistic toxicity caused by the co-administration of patulin and cadmium was attributed to the boosted reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) and p53 as downstream mediators of oxidative stress contributed to the synergistic toxicity by co-exposure of patulin and cadmium, while p53/JNK1 activation promoted the second-round ROS production through a positive feedback loop. The findings of the present study extend the toxicological knowledge about patulin and cadmium, which could be beneficial to more precisely perform risk assessments on these food contaminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cereals are still one of the most important food and feed sources, thus determining cereal's safety, i.e., compliance with legislation, is extremely important. As systematic investigations of nowadays unavoidable secondary fungal metabolites and other common legally regulated contaminants occurrence in Croatian cereals are still lacking, this research aims to monitor the contamination levels of nation-wide crops by mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and heavy metals by employing UHPLC-MS/MS, GC-MS/MS, and atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) validated analytical methods. The most common secondary fungal metabolites were found to be Fusarium mycotoxins, with DON being the most occurring present in 73.7% of the samples. At least one pesticide residue was found in 331.8% of the samples, and Hg and Cd were the most occurring heavy metals. A total of 8.5% of the samples was non-compliant to the European Union (EU) legislation for food regarding the found mycotoxins concentrations, 4.5% regarding pesticide residues and none regarding heavy metals. The unusual presence of certain pesticide residue and heavy metal indicates the importance of systematic control of the contaminant presence, in order to gather enough occurrence data for proper risk assessment that these contaminants represent for the consumer's health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

210 Po and 210 Pb occur naturally and are the most radiotoxic isotopes of the uranium (U) decay chain. Samples of Boletus edulis and related mushroom species, including B. pinophilus , B. reticulatus , B. luridus and B. impolitus , collected from Poland and Belarus were investigated for the activity concentrations of these isotopes and also for their potential health risk through adult human consumption. The results showed that spatially, the occurrence of 210 Po and 210 Po was heterogeneous, with activities varying from 0.91 to 4.47 Bq∙kg -1 dry biomass and from 0.82 to 5.82 Bq∙kg -1 db, respectively. Caps and stipes of the fruiting bodies showed similar levels of contamination. Consumption of boletes foraged in Poland could result in exposure to a combined radiation dose of 10 µSv∙kg -1 db from both isotopes. This dose is not significant compared to the total annual effective radiation dose of 210 Po and 210 Pb (54-471 µSv∙kg -1 ) from all sources, suggesting that these mushrooms are comparatively safe for human consumption.

Simple Summary: Liposcelis bostrychophila is one of the most serious pests of stored commodities among the psocids. Controlling psocids mainly relies on chemical insecticides and heat stress. In fact, L. bostrychophila has developed high levels of resistance or tolerance to heat treatment in grain storage systems. In this study, we evaluated the changes in malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration after different high temperatures. The result showed that MDA is increased slightly overall, but a drastic increase is detected at 42.5 °C for exposure of different times. To further explore the principles of L. bostrychophila in response to heat stress, we tested the changes of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidases (POD) and glutathione-S-transferases (GST) activities under different heat treatments and identified four inducible LbHsp70 genes and one LbHsp110 gene. Enzyme activities and transcript levels changed drastically after different heat treatments. These findings contribute to our understanding of the mechanism of L. bostrychophila responding to heat stress and provide baseline information for further understanding the excellent targets of L. bostrychophila. Psocids are a new risk for global food security and safety because they are significant worldwide pests of stored products. Among these psocids, Liposcelis bostrychophila has developed high levels of resistance or tolerance to heat treatment in grain storage systems, and thus has led to investigation of molecular mechanisms underlying heat tolerance in this pest. In this study, the time-related effects of thermal stress treatments at relatively high temperatures on the activities of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidases (POD), glutathione-S-transferases (GST) and malondialdehyde (MDA), of L. bostrychophila were determined. Thermal stress resulted that L. bostrychophila had a significantly higher MDA concentration at 42.5 °C, which indicated that the heat stress increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) contents and oxidative stress in this psocid pest. Heat stress also resulted in significant elevation of SOD, CAT and GST activities but decreased POD activity. Our data indicates that different antioxidant enzymes contribute to defense mechanisms, counteracting oxidative damage in varying levels. POD play minor roles in scavenging deleterious LPO, while enhanced SOD, CAT and GST activities in response to thermal stress likely play a more important role against oxidative damage. Here, we firstly identified five LbHsps (four LbHsp70s and one LbHsp110) from psocids, and most of these LbHsps (except LbHsp70-1) are highly expressed at fourth instar nymph and adults, and LbHsp70-1 likely presents as a cognate form of HSP due to its non-significant changes of expression. Most LbHsp70s (except LbHsp70-4) are significantly induced at moderate high temperatures (<40 °C) and decreased at extreme high temperatures (40–45 °C), but LbHsp110-1 can be significantly induced at all high temperatures. Results of this study suggest that the LbHsp70s and LbHsp110 genes are involved in tolerance to thermal stress in L. bostrychophila, and antioxidant enzymes and heat shock proteins may be coordinately involved in the tolerance to thermal stress in psocids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widespread presence of plasticizers Bisphenol B (BPB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) in food contact materials, medical equipment, and common household products is a toxicological risk factor for health due to internal exposure after environmental dietary exposure. This work describes the use of an amperometric cytosensor (i.e., a whole cell-based amperometric biosensoristic device) for studying mitochondrial interferences of BPA and BPB (5–100 µg/mL) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae model following long-term (24 h) exposure (acute toxicity). Percentage interference (%ρ) on yeast aerobic mitochondrial catabolism was calculated after comparison of aerobic respiration of exposed and control S. cerevisiae cell suspensions. Results suggested the hypothesis of a dose-dependent co-action of two mechanisms, namely uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress. These mechanisms respectively matched with opposite effects of hyperstimulation and inhibition of cellular respiration. While uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress have been previously described as separate effects from in vitro BPA exposure using other biochemical endpoints and biological systems, effects of BPB on cellular aerobic respiration are here reported for the first time. Results highlighted a similar hyperstimulation effect after exposure to 5 µg/mL BPA and BPB. About a 2-fold higher cellular respiration inhibition potency was observed after exposures to 15, 30, and 100 µg/mL BPB compared to BPA. 2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) was used as model uncoupling agent. A time-dependent mechanism of mitochondrial interference was also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Adult flies of the invasive fruit pest, Drosophila suzukii, commonly known as spotted wing drosophila, showed susceptibility towards several natural plant products tested in bioassays under laboratory conditions. Depending on the compound tested, contact toxicity, modified food uptake, or reduction in numbers of eggs deposited and hatched was found. The natural plant substances thereby identified will be further assessed under field conditions and can be used to develop innovative pest control strategies. Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae), is native to southeastern Asia and invaded Europe during the past decade. It causes serious economic damage in cherries and soft fruits. Control strategies rely on few insecticides with varying success. Due to environmental concern, the use of synthetic chemicals is restricted. Therefore, research effort is put into the quest for alternative substances applicable in chemical pest control. In laboratory assays, we tested 17 volatile plant compounds from different chemical classes for their contact toxicity, feeding modification, and oviposition repellency. Toxicity through contact with treated surfaces was evaluated after 1 h, 4 h, and 24 h; effects on food uptake were observed with capillary feeding (CAFE)—tests and oviposition trials compared egg numbers laid in raspberry medium with or without treated filter paper. Cinnamon oil and its components had the highest contact toxicity with an LC90 = 2–3%, whereas lemongrass oil, its main components, and farnesol were less toxic (LC90 = 7–9%), and geraniol was the least toxic. In CAFE tests, feeding stimulation was observed through 0.1% and 1% solutions of citronellol, lemongrass oil and farnesol. Cinnamon oil, cinnamaldhyde, and ethyl cinnamate were not consumed at a concentration of 1%. In the presence of citral, eugenol, and lemongrass oil, oviposition was reduced, and in the presence of limonene, no eggs were deposited. The natural products found most efficient in either bioassay will be further tested under field conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants need to be protected against pests and diseases, so as to assure an adequate production, and therefore to contribute to food security. However, some of the used pesticides are harmful compounds, and thus the right balance between the need to increase food production with the need to ensure the safety of people, food and the environment must be struck. In particular, when dealing with fruit and vegetable wastes, their content in agrochemicals should be monitored, especially in peel and skins, and eventually minimized before or during further processing to separate or concentrate bioactive compounds from it. The general objective of this review is to investigate initial levels of pesticide residues and their potential reduction through further processing for some of the most contaminated fruit and vegetable wastes. Focus will be placed on extraction and drying processes being amid the main processing steps used in the recuperation of bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetable wastes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a side effect of food production, mycotoxins have always accompanied humanity, even if the danger posed by these molecules has only recently been understood and new research has begun to identify and study ways to reduce their presence in food. This Special Issue of I Toxins i includes papers on new findings concerning well-known mycotoxins, results of studies regarding emerging mycotoxins, such as alternaria and botryodiplodin, and new techniques to reduce mycotoxin contamination in processed cereals. The reduction of the risk posed to human health by mycotoxins requires the development and validation of reliable methods to monitor mycotoxins in feed and food. [Extracted from the article]

Bioavailability of cadmium (Cd) metal in the soils due to the scarcity of good quality water and industrial waste could be the major limiting factor for the growth and yield of crops. Therefore, there is a need for a prompt solution to the Cd toxicity, to fulfill increasing food demand resulting from growing world population. Today, a variable range of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is being used at a large scale in agriculture, to reduce the risk of abiotic stresses on plants and increase crop productivity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of Bacillus siamensis in relieving the Cd induced damage in two wheat varieties (i.e., NARC-2009 and NARC-2011) grown in Cd spiked soil at different concentrations (0, 20, 30, 50 mg/kg). The plants under Cd stress accumulated more Cd in the roots and shoots, resulting in severe oxidative stress, evident by an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Moreover, a decrease in cell osmotic status, and alteration in antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were also observed in wheat plants under Cd stress. As a result, the Cd exposed plants showed a reduction in growth, tissue biomass, photosynthetic pigments, membrane stability, total soluble sugars, and amino acids, in comparison to control plants. The extent of damage was observed to be higher with an increase in Cd concentration. However, the inoculation of wheat with B. siamensis improved plant growth, reduced oxidative stress, and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes in both wheat varieties. B. siamensis amendment brought a considerable improvement in every parameter determined with respect to Cd stress. The response of both wheat varieties on exposure to B. siamensis was positively enhanced, whereas NARC-2009 accumulated less Cd compared to NARC-2011, which indicated a higher tolerance to Cd stress mediated by B. siamensis inoculation. Overall, the B. siamensis reduced the Cd toxicity in wheat plants through the augmentation of the antioxidant defense system and sugars production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potato tocosh is a naturally processed potato for nutritional and curative purposes from traditional Peruvian medicine. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute and sub-acute toxicity of tocosh flour (TF). For sub-acute toxicity, TF was administered orally to rats daily once a day for 28 days at doses of 1000 mg/kg body weight (BW). Animals were observed for general behaviors, mortality, body weight variations, and histological analysis. At the end of treatment, relative organ weights, histopathology, hematological and biochemical parameters were analyzed. For acute toxicity, TF was administered orally to mice at doses of 2000 and 5000 mg/kg BW at a single dose in both sexes. Body weight, mortality, and clinical signs were observed for 14 days after treatment. The results of acute toxicity showed that the median lethal dose (LD50) value of TF is higher than 2000 g/kg BW but less than 5000 mg/Kg BW in mice. Death and toxicological symptoms were not found during the treatment. For sub-acute toxicity, we found that no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAEL) of TF in rats up to 1000 g/kg BW. There were statistically significant differences in body weight, and relative organ weight in the stomach and brain. No differences in hematological and biochemical parameters were observed when compared with the control group. For sub-acute toxicity, histopathological studies revealed minor abnormalities in liver and kidney tissues at doses of 5000 mg/Kg. Based on these results, TF is a traditional Peruvian medicine with high safety at up to 1000 mg/kg BW for 28 days in rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several pesticides are recognized as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) since they can interfere with the dysregulation of sexual, thyroid and neuro-endocrine hormones. Children are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of EDCs due to their developmental stage, peculiar lifestyle and dietary habits. In this context, the exposure to pesticides represents an important risk factor associated with early development. This study deals with the possible association between exposure to pesticides and idiopathic premature thelarche in girls from areas of intensive agriculture practice in the Centre of Italy. An integrated approach was set up, including: (i) a case-control study on girls with idiopathic premature thelarche; (ii) the evaluation of multiple pesticides exposure in girls; (iii) the evaluation of multiple pesticides in food; (iv) the dietary intake of pesticide residues; (v) the assessment of toxicological effects of widely used pesticides by in vitro model. Data integration will provide an estimate of the predictive risk of potential effects on girls' health, linked to dietary intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxic metals are extensively found in the environment, households, and workplaces and contaminate food and drinking water. The crosstalk between environmental exposure to toxic metals and human diseases has been frequently described. The toxic mechanism of action was classically viewed as the ability to dysregulate the redox status, production of inflammatory mediators and alteration of mitochondrial function. Recently, growing evidence showed that heavy metals might exert their toxicity through microRNAs (miRNA)—short, single-stranded, noncoding molecules that function as positive/negative regulators of gene expression. Aberrant alteration of the endogenous miRNA has been directly implicated in various pathophysiological conditions and signaling pathways, consequently leading to different types of cancer and human diseases. Additionally, the gene-regulatory capacity of miRNAs is particularly valuable in the brain—a complex organ with neurons demonstrating a significant ability to adapt following environmental stimuli. Accordingly, dysregulated miRNAs identified in patients suffering from neurological diseases might serve as biomarkers for the earlier diagnosis and monitoring of disease progression. This review will greatly emphasize the effect of the toxic metals on human miRNA activities and how this contributes to progression of diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) is commonly expressed in prostate cancer (PCa) cells and is associated with increased proliferation, metastases and androgen independence. Zearalenone (ZEA) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating food, which might mimic estrogens and bind to estrogen receptors (ERs). The ratio of androgens to estrogens in men decreases physiologically with age, and is believed to participate in prostate carcinogenesis. In this study, we evaluated the role of NFκB and ERβ in the induction of oxidative stress in human PCa cells by ZEA. As observed, ZEA at a dose of 30 µM induces oxidative stress in PCa cells associated with DNA damage and G2/M cell cycle arrest. We also observed that the inhibition of ERβ and NFΚB via specific inhibitors (PHTPP and BAY 117082) significantly increased ZEA-induced oxidative stress, although the mechanism seems to be different for androgen-dependent and androgen-independent cells. Based on our findings, it is possible that the activation of ERβ and NFΚB in PCa might protect cancer cells from ZEA-induced oxidative stress. We therefore shed new light on the mechanism of ZEA toxicity in human cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that commonly contaminate crops and food by-products and thus, animal feed. Ingestion of mycotoxins can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans, and at subclinical concentrations may affect animal production and adulterate feed and animal by-products. Mycotoxicity mechanisms of action (MOA) are largely unknown, and co-contamination, which is often the case, raises the likelihood of mycotoxin interactions. Mitigation strategies for reducing the risk of mycotoxicity are diverse and may not necessarily provide protection against all mycotoxins. These factors, as well as the species-specific risk of toxicity, collectively make an assessment of exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation very challenging and costly; thus, in-vitro cell culture models provide a useful tool for their initial assessment. Since ingestion is the most common route of mycotoxin exposure, the intestinal epithelial barrier comprised of epithelial cells (IECs) and immune cells such as macrophages, represents ground zero where mycotoxins are absorbed, biotransformed, and elicit toxicity. This article aims to review different in-vitro IEC or co-culture models that can be used for assessing mycotoxin exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation, and their suitability and limitations for the safety assessment of animal foods and food by-products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food of more than half of the world's population. The main factors affecting the quality of rice include grain length, texture, stickiness, flavor, and aroma. Pesticides are intended for the protection of plant products from weeds, fungi, or insects. However, pesticides also result in negative effects such as environment disturbances, pest resistance and toxicity to both users and food consumers. The aim of this study was to conduct validation experiments of a method for the determination of multi-pesticides in rice, a model food of other cereals. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method was used for the extraction of pesticide residues from rice followed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) with a triple quadrupole instrument using electrospray ionization. The analytical method has chromatography-tandem according to SANTE/11813/2017. The limit of quantification was 5 μg/kg. Recoveries for the 155 analyzed pesticides ranged between 77.1% for pirimiphos-ethyl and 111.5% for flutriafol and they were determined at 3 spiking levels. The proposed method was demonstrated to be quick, simple, precise, and accurate and allowed for evaluating the compliance of cereals samples with legislated maximum residue levels of pesticides in the European Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mastic essential oil exhibits anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant properties. With the growing interest of the use of mastic oil in the food and pharmaceutical industry, systematic in vivo studies are needed to address controlled usage and safety issues. In the present work we evaluated the safety of mastic oil using as a model the zebrafish lateral line system. In addition, we studied the gene expression profile of zebrafish fed with mastic oil-supplemented diet using microarray analysis. Our results showed that the hair cells of lateral line neuromasts are functional upon exposure of zebrafish larvae up to 20 ppm of mastic essential oil, while treatment with higher concentrations, 100 and 200 ppm, resulted in increased larvae mortality. Dietary supplementation of zebrafish with mastic essential oil led to differential expression of interferon response-related genes as well as the immune responsive gene 1 (irg1) that links cellular metabolism with immune defense. Notably, mucin 5.2, a constituent of the mucus hydrogel that protects the host against invading pathogens, was up-regulated. Our in vivo work provides information concerning the safety of mastic essential oil use and suggests dietary effects on gene expression related with the physical and immunochemical properties of the gastrointestinal system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The health status of pets may be affected by infectious agents transmitted through the feed. The close coexistence between humans and animals makes the safety assurance of pet food paramount. Different unit operations are applied at the industry level to prevent and reduce the presence of physical, chemical, and biological hazards in pet food; through these operations and adequate implementation of good manufacturing practices, the safety of the finished product can be preserved. Costa Rican animal feed production is continually growing, with approximately 1,238,243 metric tons produced in 2018. Production-wise, pet cat and dog food are in fifth place (about 41,635 metric tons per year) amongst animal feeds, and it supplies up to 90% of the national market. Pet food production has increased as a response to the increase in the population of dogs and cats in Costa Rica, where 50.5% of households own at least one dog and indicates more responsible ownership in terms of feeding pets. Part of the process of making dry pet food involves a thermal process called extrusion, which is capable of eliminating the microbial load. However, extrusion can compromise nutritional quality to some extent by denaturing proteins, oxidizing lipids, and reducing digestibility. The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality and safety of dry pet food and to assess the effect of the extrusion process on digestibility and the quality of proteins, amino acids, and fatty acids. Pet food samples were collected before and after extrusion and were used to evaluate Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), based on Central American Technical Regulation (RTCA 65.05.63:11). In general terms, weaknesses in infrastructure, documentary evidence, and post-process practices were observed in two Costa Rican feed manufactories. Feed safety was surveyed through the analysis of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Listeria spp., Staphylococcus aureus, aerobic mesophilic microorganisms, fungi, and yeasts counts. The extrusion process effectively reduced pathogenic microorganisms, and showed no effect on the digestibility of dog food (p = 0.347), however, it could reduce the availability of some nutrients (e.g., amino acids, fatty acids). Furthermore, a retrospective diagnosis was made for puppy food (n = 68), dog food (n = 158), and cat food (n = 25), to evaluate the history of nutritional quality and safety. Finally, it can be confirmed that the correct implementation of GMP allows feed manufacturers to deliver a product of optimum texture, smell, nutritional composition, and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungal diseases have been underestimated worldwide but constitute a substantial threat to several plant and animal species as well as to public health. The increase in the global population has entailed an increase in the demand for agriculture in recent decades. Accordingly, there has been worldwide pressure to find means to improve the quality and productivity of agricultural crops. Antifungal agents have been widely used as an alternative for managing fungal diseases affecting several crops. However, the unregulated use of antifungals can jeopardize public health. Application of fungicides in agriculture should be under strict regulation to ensure the toxicological safety of commercialized foods. This review discusses the use of antifungals in agriculture worldwide, the need to develop new antifungals, and improvement of regulations regarding antifungal use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characterization of mcr-1-Harboring Plasmids from Pan Drug-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Retail Raw Chicken in South Korea. Jinshil Kim 1, Bo Kyoung Hwang 2,3, HyeLim Choi 2,3, Yang Wang 4, Sang Ho Choi 2,3, Sangryeol Ryu 1,* and Byeonghwa Jeon 1,5,* Jinshil Kim 1,2, Bo Kyoung Hwang 3,4, HyeLim Choi 3,4, Yang Wang 5, Sang Ho Choi 3,4, Sangryeol Ryu 1,2,* and Byeonghwa Jeon1,2,6,*. [Extracted from the article]

Simple Summary: Denatonium benzoate is a strong bitter taste receptor agonist, extensively used for its activation of different cell pathways. Taste signals have been associated to food recognition and avoidance, and bitter taste provokes an aversive reaction and is assumed to protect chickens from consuming poisons and harmful toxic substances. The results of the study revealed that dietary supplementation with medium and high doses of denatonium benzoate damaged the epithelial cells of the heart and kidneys by inducing apoptosis and autophagy and reduced the growth of chickens, respectively. However, mRNA expressions of bitter taste receptors, downstream signaling effector genes, apoptosis-, autophagy- and antioxidant-related genes were higher on day 7, while these expressions were subsequently decreased on day-28 in the heart and kidney of Chinese Fast Yellow chickens in a dose-response manner. The sense of taste which tells us which prospective foods are nutritious, poisonous and harmful is essential for the life of the organisms. Denatonium benzoate (DB) is a bitter taste agonist known for its activation of bitter taste receptors in different cells. The aim of the current study was to investigate the mRNA expressions of bitter taste, downstream signaling effectors, apoptosis-, autophagy- and antioxidant-related genes and effector signaling pathways in the heart/kidney of chickens after DB dietary exposure. We randomly assigned 240, 1-day-old Chinese Fast Yellow chicks into four groups with five replicates of 12 chicks and studied them for 28 consecutive days. The dietary treatments consisted of basal diet and feed containing DB (5, 20 and 100 mg/kg). The results revealed that dietary DB impaired (p < 0.05) the growth performance of the chickens. Haemotoxylin and eosin staining and TUNEL assays confirmed that medium and high doses of DB damaged the epithelial cells of heart/kidney and induced apoptosis and autophagy. Remarkably, the results of RT-PCR and qRT-PCR indicated that different doses of DB gradually increased (p < 0.05) mRNA expressions of bitter taste, signaling effectors, apoptosis-, autophagy- and antioxidant- related genes on day 7 in a dose-response manner, while, these expressions were decreased (p < 0.05) subsequently by day-28 but exceptional higher (P < 0.05) expressions were observed in the high-dose DB groups of chickens. In conclusion, DB exerts adverse effects on the heart/kidney of chickens in a dose-response manner via damaging the epithelium of the heart/kidney by inducing apoptosis, autophagy associated with bitter taste and effector gene expressions. Correlation analyses for apoptosis/autophagy showed agonistic relationships. Our data provide a novel perspective for understanding the interaction of bitter taste, apoptosis, autophagy and antioxidative genes with bitter taste strong activators in the heart/kidney of chicken. These insights might help the feed industries and pave the way toward innovative directions in chicken husbandry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the Maillard reaction products, furosine has been widely reported in a variety of heat-processed foods, while the toxicity of furosine on the reproductive system and related mechanisms are unclear. Here, we constructed an intragastric gavage male mice model (42-day administration, 0.1/0.25/0.5 g furosine/Kg body weight per day) to investigate its effects on mice testicle index, hormones in serum, and mice sperm quality. Besides, the lipid metabonomics analysis was performed to screen out the special metabolites and relatively altered pathways in mice testicle tissue. Mice primary sertoli cells were separated from male mice testicle to validate the role of special metabolites in regulating pathways. We found that furosine affected testicle index, hormones expression level and sperm quality, as well as caused pathological damages in testicle tissue. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) (18:0/16:1) was upregulated by furosine both in mice testicle tissue and in primary sertoli cells, meanwhile, PE(18:0/16:1) was proved to activate Cep55/NF-κB/PI3K/Akt/FOX01/TNF-α pathway, and as a functional protein in dairy products, lactoferrin could inhibit expression of this pathway when combined with furosine. In conclusion, for the first time we validated that furosine posed toxic effects on mice sperms and testicle tissue through upregulating PE(18:0/16:1) and activating Cep55/NF-κB/PI3K/Akt/FOX01/TNF-α pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible insects as an alternative source of protein are discussed as an important contribution to future feed and food security. However, it has to be ensured that the consumption is non-hazardous. This systematic review summarizes findings concerning contaminations of insects with mycotoxins and heavy metal ions (SciFinder, Pubmed, until 26 June 2019). Both kinds of contaminants were reported to reduce growth performance and increase mortality in insects. There was no evidence for accumulation of various mycotoxins analyzed in distinct insect species. However, further research is necessary due to limitation of data. Since the gut content contributes relevantly to the total body burden of contaminants in insects, a starving period before harvesting is recommended. Contrary, accumulation of heavy metal ions occurred to a varying extent dependent on metal type, insect species, and developmental stage. Examples are the accumulation of cadmium (black soldier fly) and arsenic (yellow mealworm). The reported species-specific accumulation and metabolism patterns of contaminants emphasize the importance to assess potential safety hazards in a case-by-case approach. Subject to regular monitoring of contaminants, the general ban in the European Union to use waste in animal feed should also be questioned regarding insect farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, food safety and quality are some of the main concerns of consumer and health agencies around the world. Our current lifestyle and market globalization have led to an increase in the number of people affected by food poisoning. Foodborne illness and food poisoning have different origins (bacteria, virus, parasites, mold, contaminants, etc.), and some cases of food poisoning can be traced back to chemical and natural toxins. One of the toxins targeted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is the biogenic amine histamine. Biogenic amines (BAs) in food constitute a potential public health concern due to their physiological and toxicological effects. The consumption of foods containing high concentrations of biogenic amines has been associated with health hazards. In recent years there has been an increase in the number of food poisoning cases associated with BAs in food, mainly in relation to histamines in fish. We need to gain a better understanding of the origin of foodborne disease and how to control it if we expect to keep people from getting ill. Biogenic amines are found in varying concentrations in a wide range of foods (fish, cheese, meat, wine, beer, vegetables, etc.), and BA formation is influenced by different factors associated with the raw material making up food products, microorganisms, processing, and conservation conditions. Moreover, BAs are thermostable. Biogenic amines also play an important role as indicators of food quality and/or acceptability. Hence, BAs need to be controlled in order to ensure high levels of food quality and safety. All of these aspects will be addressed in this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fermented foods (FF) are widely consumed around the world, and FF are one of the prime sources of toxins and pathogenic microbes that are associated with several foodborne outbreaks. Mycotoxins (aflatoxins, fumonisins, sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin, and alternariol), bacterial toxins (shiga toxin and botulinum), biogenic amines, and cyanogenic glycosides are the common toxins found in FF in addition to the pathogenic microbes. Fermented milk products and meat sausages are extremely vulnerable to contamination. Cumulative updated information about a specific topic such as toxins in FF is essential for the improvement of safer preparation and consumption of fermented foods. Accordingly, the current manuscript summarizes the reported mycotoxins, bacterial toxins, and/or toxins from other sources; detection methods and prevention of toxins in FF (use of specific starter culture, optimized fermentation process, and pre- and post-processing treatments); and major clinical outbreaks. This literature survey was made in Scopus, Web of Science, NCBI-PubMed, and Google Scholar using the search terms "Toxins" and "Fermented Foods" as keywords. The appropriate scientific documents were screened for relevant information and they were selected without any chronological restrictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apples and apple-based products are among the most popular foods around the world for their delightful flavors and health benefits. However, the commonly found mold, Penicillium expansum invades wounded apples, causing the blue mold decay and ensuing the production of patulin, a mycotoxin that negatively affects human health. Patulin contamination in apple products has been a worldwide problem without a satisfactory solution yet. A comprehensive understanding of the factors and challenges associated with patulin accumulation in apples is essential for finding such a solution. This review will discuss the effects of the pathogenicity of Penicillium species, quality traits of apple cultivars, and environmental conditions on the severity of apple blue mold and patulin contamination. Moreover, beyond the complicated interactions of the three aforementioned factors, patulin control is also challenged by the lack of reliable detection methods in food matrices, as well as unclear degradation mechanisms and limited knowledge about the toxicities of the metabolites resulting from the degradations. As apple-based products are mainly produced with stored apples, pre- and post-harvest strategies are equally important for patulin mitigation. Before storage, disease-resistance breeding, orchard-management, and elicitor(s) application help control the patulin level by improving the storage qualities of apples and lowering fruit rot severity. From storage to processing, patulin mitigation strategies could benefit from the optimization of apple storage conditions, the elimination of rotten apples, and the safe and effective detoxification or biodegradation of patulin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amplified luminescent proximity homogenous assay-linked immunosorbent assay (AlphaLISA) is comprised of a bead-based immunoassay that is used for small molecule detection. In this study, a novel AlphaLISA was developed and optimized for the detection of Shiga-toxin 2 (Stx2). Efficacy and sensitivity trials showed the AlphaLISA could detect ≥0.5 ng/mL of purified Stx2, which was comparable to the industry-standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests for Stx2 detection. In addition, evaluation of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)-inoculated Romaine lettuce and ground beef samples demonstrated that both the AlphaLISA and the ELISA were able to discern uninoculated samples from 1× and 10× diluted samples containing ~10 CFU/mL of STEC enriched in modified tryptic soy broth with mitomycin C for 16 h. Overall, the increased signal-to-noise ratios indicated a more robust signal was produced by the AlphaLISA compared to the ELISA and the delineation of higher toxin concentrations without the need for sample dilution implied a greater dynamic range for the AlphaLISA. Implementation of the newly developed AlphaLISA will allow for more rapid analysis for Stx2 with less manual manipulation, thus improving assay throughput and the ability to automate sample screening while maintaining detection limits of 0.5 ng/mL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improvements and good practices (GPs) in rural environments are often developed by peasants themselves and shared among trust-based networks. The level of adoption of GPs by peasant family farmers (PFF) has been poorly studied. This paper describes the performance and results of the innovation adoption index (InAI) and rate (InAR) which were used to estimate the adoption of GPs for pesticide and veterinary drug use by PFF from eight different regions of Chile. Surveys were conducted among 257 farmers to find out about the adoption (yes/no) of a set of GPs in the adequate handling, use and storage of these chemical products, as well as some identifying information. The farmers in this study are producers of berries, dairy cows, honey and vegetables. The results of the survey showed an average of 57.33% GPs were adopted by farmers. Group averages of 55.23–61.32% were observed in the numbers of practices adopted by farmers. This survey data collection was part of a wider study intended to design a national plan to reduce chemical residues in food produced by PFF in Chile, with a focus on organizing practical workshops with extension officers and farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]