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Pancreatic cancer is the seventh most common cause of death in the group of oncological diseases. Due to the asymptomatic course, early diagnosis is difficult. Currently, early detection methods are only used in high-risk groups. A literature review based on the available results of observational studies on patients with pancreatic cancer and people from high-risk groups was used to summarize the knowledge on risk factors. The GLOBOCAN 2020 data were used to assess the epidemiological situation in Europe. A summary of screening recommendations was prepared based on the available documents from medical organizations and associations. Pancreatic cancer risk factors are divided into two main groups: non-modifiable factors, e.g., hereditary factors and age, which increase the risk of developing this disease, and modifiable factors-BMI, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Hereditary factors account for 10% of pancreatic cancer cases. The highly specialized methods of early detection, (MRI, CT, or EUS) are used for screening high-risk populations. Of all the imaging methods, EUS is considered the most sensitive for pancreatic cancer and allows an accurate assessment of the size of even small lesions (<30 mm) and the extent of tumour infiltration into blood vessels. The available studies vary on the level of sensitivity and specificity of these methods for the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. EUS, MRI, and CT are also expensive procedures and in some patients can be invasive, which is one of the arguments against the introduction of population screening programs based on imaging methods. Therefore, it is important to look for viable solutions that would improve early detection. This is important from the point of view of healthcare systems in Europe, where almost 29% of all global pancreatic cancer cases are reported.

The most common tumour of the pancreas is ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). It remains one of the most lethal non-neuroendocrine solid tumours despite the use of a multi-approach strategy. Other, less-common neoplasms, which are responsible for 15% of pancreatic lesions, differ in treatment and prognosis. Due to the low incidence rate, there is a lack of information about the rarest pancreatic tumours. In this review, we described six rare pancreatic tumours: intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN), mucinous cystadenoma (MCN), serous cystic neoplasm (SCN), acinar cell carcinoma (ACC), solid pseudopapillary neoplasm (SPN) and pancreatoblastoma (PB). We distinguished their epidemiology, clinical and gross features, covered the newest reports about courses of treatment and systematised differential diagnoses. Although the most common pancreatic tumour, PDAC, has the highest malignant potential, it is still essential to properly classify and differentiate less-common lesions. It is vital to continue the search for new biomarkers, genetic mutations and the development of more specific biochemical tests for determining malignancy in rare pancreatic neoplasms.

The bony skeleton, as a structural foundation for the human body, is essential in providing mechanical function and movement. The human skeleton is a highly specialized and dynamic organ that undergoes continuous remodeling as it adapts to the demands of its environment. Advances in research over the last decade have shone light on the various hormones that influence this process, modulating the metabolism and structural integrity of bone. More recently, novel and non-traditional functions of hypothalamic, pituitary, and adipose hormones and their effects on bone homeostasis have been proposed. This review highlights recent work on physiological bone remodeling and discusses our knowledge, as it currently stands, on the systemic interplay of factors regulating this interaction. In this review, we provide a summary of the literature on the relationship between bone physiology and hormones including kisspeptin, neuropeptide Y, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), growth hormone (GH), leptin, and adiponectin. The discovery and understanding of this new functionality unveils an entirely new layer of physiologic circuitry.