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Climate variability, land use and land cover changes (LULCC) have a considerable impact on runoff–erosion processes. This study analyzed the relationships between climate variability and spatiotemporal LULCC on runoff–erosion processes in different scenarios of land use and land cover (LULC) for the Almas River basin, located in the Cerrado biome in Brazil. Landsat images from 1991, 2006, and 2017 were used to analyze changes and the LULC scenarios. Two simulations based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) were compared: (1) default application using the standard model database (SWATd), and (2) application using remote sensing multiple gridded datasets (albedo and leaf area index) downloaded using the Google Earth Engine (SWATrs). In addition, the SWAT model was applied to analyze the impacts of streamflow and erosion in two hypothetical scenarios of LULC. The first scenario was the optimistic scenario (OS), which represents the sustainable use and preservation of natural vegetation, emphasizing the recovery of permanent preservation areas close to watercourses, hilltops, and mountains, based on the Brazilian forest code. The second scenario was the pessimistic scenario (PS), which presents increased deforestation and expansion of farming activities. The results of the LULC changes show that between 1991 and 2017, the area occupied by agriculture and livestock increased by 75.38%. These results confirmed an increase in the sugarcane plantation and the number of cattle in the basin. The SWAT results showed that the difference between the simulated streamflow for the PS was 26.42%, compared with the OS. The sediment yield average estimation in the PS was 0.035 ton/ha/year, whereas in the OS, it was 0.025 ton/ha/year (i.e., a decrease of 21.88%). The results demonstrated that the basin has a greater predisposition for increased streamflow and sediment yield due to the LULC changes. In addition, measures to contain the increase in agriculture should be analyzed by regional managers to reduce soil erosion in this biome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modelling drought is vital to water resources management, particularly in arid areas, to reduce its effects. Drought severity and frequency are significantly influenced by climate change. In this study, a novel hybrid methodology was built, data preprocessing and artificial neural network (ANN) combined with the constriction coefficient-based particle swarm optimisation and chaotic gravitational search algorithm (CPSOCGSA), to forecast standard precipitation index (SPI) based on climatic factors. Additionally, the marine predators algorithm (MPA) and the slime mould algorithm (SMA) were used to validate the performance of the CPSOCGSA algorithm. Climatic factors data from 1990 to 2020 were employed to create and evaluate the SPI 1, SPI 3, and SPI 6 models for Al-Kut City, Iraq. The results indicated that data preprocessing methods improve data quality and find the best predictors scenario. The performance of CPSOCGSA-ANN is better than MPA-ANN and SMA-ANN algorithms based on various statistical criteria (i.e., R2, MAE, and RMSE). The proposed methodology yield R2 = 0.93, 0.93, and 0.88 for SPI 1, SPI 3, and SPI 6, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The limited amount of freshwater is the most important challenge facing Egypt due to increasing population and climate change. The objective of this study was to investigate how climatic change affects the winter potato water footprint at the Nile Delta covering 10 governorates from 1990 to 2016. Winter potato evapotranspiration (ETC) was calculated based on daily climate variables of minimum temperature, maximum temperature, wind speed and relative humidity during the growing season (October–February). The Mann–Kendall test was applied to determine the trend of climatic variables, crop evapotranspiration and water footprint. The results showed that the highest precipitation values were registered in the northwest governorates (Alexandria followed by Kafr El-Sheikh). The potato water footprint decreased from 170 m3 ton−1 in 1990 to 120 m3 ton−1 in 2016. The blue-water footprint contributed more than 75% of the total; the remainder came from the green-water footprint. The findings from this research can help government and policy makers better understand the impact of climate change on potato crop yield and to enhance sustainable water management in Egypt's major crop-producing regions to alleviate water scarcity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of metrological, hydrological, and environmental data analyses are mainly dependent on the reliable estimation of missing data. In this study, 21 classical methods were evaluated to determine the best method for infilling the missing precipitation data in Ethiopia. The monthly data collected from 15 different stations over 34 years from 1980 to 2013 were considered. Homogeneity and trend tests were performed to check the data. The results of the different methods were compared using the mean absolute error (MAE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), coefficient of efficiency (CE), similarity index (S-index), skill score (SS), and Pearson correlation coefficient (rPearson). The results of this paper confirmed that the normal ratio (NR), multiple linear regression (MLR), inverse distance weighting (IDW), correlation coefficient weighting (CCW), and arithmetic average (AA) methods are the most reliable methods of those studied. The NR method provides the most accurate estimations with rPearson of 0.945, mean absolute error of 22.90 mm, RMSE of 33.695 mm, similarity index of 0.999, CE index of 0.998, and skill score of 0.998. When comparing the observed results and the estimated results from the NR, MLR, IDW, CCW, and AA methods, the MAE and RMSE were found to be low, and high values of CE, S-index, SS, and rPearson were achieved. On the other hand, using the closet station (CS), UK traditional, linear regression (LR), expectation maximization (EM), and multiple imputations (MI) methods gave the lowest accuracy, with MAE and RMSE values varying from 30.424 to 47.641 mm and from 49.564 to 58.765 mm, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the recommended methods are applicable for different types of climatic data in Ethiopia and arid regions in other countries around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimizing nitrogen (N) inputs is crucial for maximizing wheat yield and ensuring environmental sustainability. Wheat's economic significance in India calls for a comprehensive evaluation of its ecological implications to develop a resilient production system. This study aimed to identify and evaluate ten wheat cultivars for their yield and N-use efficiency under varying nitrogen inputs (control (N0), half of the recommended nitrogen (N75), and the recommended nitrogen (N150)) using the surface application of neem-oil-coated urea. All N inputs were applied in three splits, basal, crown root initiation, and tillering stages, and an experiment was conducted in a split-plot design. The application of N150 gave the highest dry matter accumulation (DMA) at harvesting stage (AHS) (871 g m−2), seed/spike (60), grain yield (GY = 7.4 t ha−1), straw yield (SY = 8.9 t ha−1), harvest index (HI = 45.2%), protein (12.5%), and total uptake of N (TUN) (223 kg ha−1) by the cultivar 'HD 3249', being closely followed by the cultivar 'HD3117'. Six cultivars ('HD 3298', 'HD 3117', 'HD 3249', 'PBW 550', 'HD 3086', 'HD 2967') out of the ten cultivars evaluated responded well to different input treatments with respect to the grain yield efficiency index (GYEI ≥ 1). Regarding N input, N75 and N150 recorded the highest increases in plant height, AHS (16.5%; 21.2%), dry matter accumulation (DMA) at 30 days after sowing (DAS) (37.5%; 64%), DMA-60 DAS (42%; 53%), DMA-90 DAS (39.5%; 52.5%), TILL-30 DAS (19.8%; 26.4%), TILL-60 DAS (33.3%; 44%), TILL-90 DAS (37.2%; 47.2%), seed/spike (8%; 10%), 1000-grain weight (7.8%; 12.2%), and protein content (23.3%; and 33%) when compared with N0. Furthermore, the application of N75 and N150 improved GY (72.1%; 142.6%), SY (61.1%; 110.6%), BY (65.5%; 123%), and HI by 4.4% and 9%, respectively, over N0. Nitrogen addition (N75 and N150) also significantly increased total nitrogen uptake (104.7%; 205.6%), respectively, compared to N0. The correlation analysis revealed a positive association among most of the crop parameters. Overall, our research results suggest that the cultivars 'HD 3249' and 'HD 3117' have the potential to be effective options for improving N utilization efficiency, grain yield, and GYEI in North-West India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landslides are a dangerous natural hazard that can critically harm road infrastructure in mountainous places, resulting in significant damage and fatalities. The primary purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of three machine learning algorithms (MLAs) for landslide susceptibility mapping including random forest (RF), decision tree (DT), and support vector machine (SVM). We selected a case study region that is frequently affected by landslides, the important Kamyaran–Sarvabad road in the Kurdistan province of Iran. Altogether, 14 landslide evaluation factors were input into the MLAs including slope, aspect, elevation, river density, distance to river, distance to fault, fault density, distance to road, road density, land use, slope curvature, lithology, stream power index (SPI), and topographic wetness index (TWI). We identified 64 locations of landslides by field survey of which 70% were randomly employed for building and training the three MLAs while the remaining locations were used for validation. The area under the receiver operating characteristics (AUC) reached a value of 0.94 for the decision tree compared to 0.82 for the random forest, and 0.75 for support vector machines model. Thus, the decision tree model was most accurate in identifying the areas at risk for future landslides. The obtained results may inform geoscientists and those in decision-making roles for landslide management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A hybrid machine learning (ML) model is becoming a common trend in predicting reference evapotranspiration (ETo) research. This study aims to systematically review ML models that are integrated with meta-heuristic algorithms (i.e., parameter optimisation-based hybrid models, OBH) for predicting ETo data. Over five years, from 2018–2022, the articles published in three reliable databases, including Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and IEEE Xplore, were considered. According to the protocol search, 1485 papers were selected. After three filters were applied, the final set contained 33 papers related to the nominated topic. The final set of papers was categorised into five groups. The first group, swarm intelligence-based algorithms, had the highest proportion of papers, (23/33) and was superior to all other algorithms. The second group (evolution computation-based algorithms), third group (physics-based algorithms), fourth group (hybrid-based algorithms), and fifth group (reviews and surveys) had (4/33), (1/33), (2/33), and (3/33), respectively. However, researchers have not treated OBH models in much detail, and there is still room for improvement by investigating both newly single and hybrid meta-heuristic algorithms. Finally, this study hopes to assist researchers in understanding the options and gaps in this line of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study area (Faridabad, Gurugram, Ghaziabad, and Gautam Buddha Nagar), the aerosol concentration is very high, adversely affecting the environmental conditions and air quality. Investigating the impact of Land Use Land Cover (LULC) on Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) helps us to develop effective solutions for improving air quality. Hence, the spectral indices derived from LULC ((Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), Soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), Enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and Normalized difference build-up index (NDBI)) with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Multiangle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) high spatial resolution (1 km) AOD from the years 2010–2019 (less to high urbanized period) has been correlated. The current study used remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques to examine changes in LULC in the current study region over the ten years (2010–2019) and the relationship between LULC and AOD. A significant increase in built-up areas (12.18%) and grasslands (51.29%) was observed during 2010–2019, while cropland decreased by 4.42%. A positive correlation between NDBI and SAVI (0.35, 0.27) indicates that built-up soils play an important role in accumulating AOD in a semi-arid region. At the same time, a negative correlation between NDVI and EVI (−0.24, −0.15) indicates the removal of aerosols due to an increase in vegetation. The results indicate that SAVI can play an important role in PM2.5 modeling in semi-arid regions. Based on these findings, urban planners can improve land use management, air quality, and urban planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of water resources is a priority problem in agriculture, especially in areas with a limited water supply. The determination of crop water requirements and crop coefficient (Kc) of agricultural crops helps to create an appropriate irrigation schedule for the effective management of irrigation water. A portable smart weighing lysimeter (1000 × 1000 mm and 600 mm depth) was developed at CPCT, IARI, New Delhi for real-time measurement of Crop Coefficient (Kc) and water requirement of chrysanthemum crop and bulk data storage. The paper discusses the assembly, structural and operational design of the portable smart weighting lysimeter. The performance characteristics of the developed lysimeter were evaluated under different load conditions. The Kc values of the chrysanthemum crop obtained from the lysimeter installed inside the greenhouse were Kc ini. 0.43 and 0.38, Kc mid-1.27 and 1.25, and Kc end-0.67 and 0.59 for the years 2019–2020 and 2020–2021, respectively, which apprehensively corroborated with the FAO 56 paper for determination of crop coefficient. The Kc values decreased progressively at the late-season stage because of the maturity and aging of the leaves. The lysimeter's edge temperature was somewhat higher, whereas the center temperature closely matched the field temperature. The temperature difference between the center and the edge increased as the ambient temperature rose. The developed smart lysimeter system has unique applications due to its real-time measurement, portable attribute, and ability to produce accurate results for determining crop water use and crop coefficient for greenhouse chrysanthemum crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is one of the leading issues affecting river basins due to its direct impacts on the cryosphere and hydrosphere. General circulation models (GCMs) are widely applied tools to assess climate change but the coarse spatial resolution of GCMs limit their direct application for local studies. This study selected five CMIP5 GCMs (CCSM4, HadCM3, GFDL-CM3, MRI-CGCM3 and CanESM2) for performance evaluation ranked by Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient (NSE) and Kling–Gupta Efficiency (KGE). CCSM4 and HadCM3 large-scale predictors were favored based on ranks (0.71 and 0.68, respectively) for statistical downscaling techniques to downscale the climatic indicators Tmax, Tmin and precipitation. The performance of two downscaling techniques, Statistical Downscaling Methods (SDSM) and Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator (LARS-WG), were examined using the Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), bias, NSE and KGE with weights (Wi) for the validation period. The results of statistical measures proved SDSM more efficient (0.67) in comparison to the LARS-WG (0.51) for the validation time for the Jhelum River basin. The findings revealed that the SDSM simulation for Tmax and Tmin are more comparable to the reference data for the validation period except simulation of extreme events by precipitation. The 21st century climatic projections exhibited a significant rise in Tmax (2.37–4.66 °C), Tmin (2.47–4.52 °C) and precipitation (7.4–11.54%) for RCP-4.5 and RCP-8.5, respectively. Overall, the results depicted that winter and pre-monsoon seasons were potentially most affected in terms of warming and precipitation, which has the potential to alter the cryosphere and runoff of the Jhelum River basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, two hybrid intelligent models are proposed for prediction accuracy enhancement for wind speed and power modeling. The established models are based on the hybridisation of Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) with a Pattern Sequence-based Forecasting (PSF) model and the integration of EEMD-PSF with Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model. In both models (i.e., EEMD-PSF and EEMD-PSF-ARIMA), the EEMD method is used to decompose the time-series into a set of sub-series and the forecasting of each sub-series is initiated by respective prediction models. In the EEMD-PSF model, all sub-series are predicted using the PSF model, whereas in the EEMD-PSF-ARIMA model, the sub-series with high and low frequencies are predicted using PSF and ARIMA, respectively. The selection of the PSF or ARIMA models for the prediction process is dependent on the time-series characteristics of the decomposed series obtained with the EEMD method. The proposed models are examined for predicting wind speed and wind power time-series at Maharashtra state, India. In case of short-term wind power time-series prediction, both proposed methods have shown at least 18.03 and 14.78 percentage improvement in forecast accuracy in terms of root mean square error (RMSE) as compared to contemporary methods considered in this study for direct and iterated strategies, respectively. Similarly, for wind speed data, those improvement observed to be 20.00 and 23.80 percentages, respectively. These attained prediction results evidenced the potential of the proposed models for the wind speed and wind power forecasting. The current proposed methodology is transformed into R package 'decomposedPSF' which is discussed in the Appendix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing populations, socio-economic development, the pollution of rivers, and the withdrawal of fresh water are all signs of increasing water scarcity, and with 85% of global use, agriculture is the biggest freshwater user. The water footprint (WF) and virtual water (VW) are concepts used recently for freshwater resources assessment. The WF reflects how much, when and where the water was used whereas VW reveals the volume of water embedded in goods when traded. The first goal of this research is to determine the WF per ton and the WF of production (Mm3/yr) of wheat, barley, rice, and maize in Iraq. The second goal is estimating the quantities of the 4 main cereal crops imported into Iraq and assessing the impact on reducing WF and land savings for 10 years from 2007 to 2016. The results showed that the WF per ton was 1736, 1769, 3694, 2238 m3/ton and the WF of production was 5271, 1475, 997, 820 Mm3/yr for wheat, barley, rice, and maize, respectively. The median total VW imported was 4408 Mm3/yr, the largest volume was 3478 Mm3/yr from wheat, and Iraq saved about 2676 Mm3 of irrigated water and 1,239,539 M ha of land by importing crops every year during 2007–2016. The study revealed the significance of better irrigation management methods to decrease the WF through a selection of crops that need less water and cultivation in rain-fed areas, as well as the use of cereal import to conserve scarce water resources, which is crucial both in terms of water resource management and preservation of the environment. The results of this research could be used as a guideline for better water management practices in Iraq and can provide helpful data for both stakeholders and policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An anthropogenic activity is one of the most severe environmental causes for groundwater contamination in the urban area. Groundwater thought to be one of the principal sources of water supply in Halabja Saidsadiq Basin, and therefore its vulnerability evaluation to define areas that are more vulnerable to pollution is incredibly vital. The objectives of this paper are to reveal weight modified of DRASTIC model based on the Analytical Hierarchical Process to estimate the proportional likelihood of groundwater resources pollution. Tritium isotopes analysis was chosen and applied as a pollution marker to confirm the result of this adjustment. Based on this modification, vulnerability classes that were achieved for the studied basin were alienated into five classes, including very low, low, medium, high, and very high, with vulnerability index value of (<100, >100–125, >125–150, >150–200, and >200), respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We mapped landslide susceptibility in Kamyaran city of Kurdistan Province, Iran, using a robust deep-learning (DP) model based on a combination of extreme learning machine (ELM), deep belief network (DBN), back propagation (BP), and genetic algorithm (GA). A total of 118 landslide locations were recorded and divided in the training and testing datasets. We selected 25 conditioning factors, and of these, we specified the most important ones by an information gain ratio (IGR) technique. We assessed the performance of the DP model using statistical measures including sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, F1-measure, and area under-the-receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Three benchmark algorithms, i.e., support vector machine (SVM), REPTree, and NBTree, were used to check the applicability of the proposed model. The results by IGR concluded that of the 25 conditioning factors, only 16 factors were important for our modeling procedure, and of these, distance to road, road density, lithology and land use were the four most significant factors. Results based on the testing dataset revealed that the DP model had the highest accuracy (0.926) of the compared algorithms, followed by NBTree (0.917), REPTree (0.903), and SVM (0.894). The landslide susceptibility maps prepared from the DP model with AUC = 0.870 performed the best. We consider the DP model a suitable tool for landslide susceptibility mapping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of safe water for people is a human right; historically, a major number of people depend on groundwater as a source of water for their needs, such as agricultural, industrial or human activities. Water resources have recently been affected by organic and/or inorganic contaminants as a result of population growth and increased anthropogenic activity, soil leaching and pollution. Water resource remediation has become a serious environmental concern, since it has a direct impact on many aspects of people's lives. For decades, the pump-and-treat method has been considered the predominant treatment process for the remediation of contaminated groundwater with organic and inorganic contaminants. On the other side, this technique missed sustainability and the new concept of using renewable energy. Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) have been implemented as an alternative to conventional pump-and-treat systems for remediating polluted groundwater because of their effectiveness and ease of implementation. In this paper, a review of the importance of groundwater, contamination and biological, physical as well as chemical remediation techniques have been discussed. In this review, the principles of the permeable reactive barrier's use as a remediation technique have been introduced along with commonly used reactive materials and the recent applications of the permeable reactive barrier in the remediation of different contaminants, such as heavy metals, chlorinated solvents and pesticides. This paper also discusses the characteristics of reactive media and contaminants' uptake mechanisms. Finally, remediation isotherms, the breakthrough curves and kinetic sorption models are also being presented. It has been found that groundwater could be contaminated by different pollutants and must be remediated to fit human, agricultural and industrial needs. The PRB technique is an efficient treatment process that is an inexpensive alternative for the pump-and-treat procedure and represents a promising technique to treat groundwater pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of groundwater quality in the Dammam formation, Faddak farm, Karbala Governorate, Iraq proved that the sulfate (SO42−) concentrations have high values; so, this water is not suitable for livestock, poultry and irrigation purposes. For reclamation of this water, manufacturing of new sorbent for permeable reactive barrier was required through precipitation of Mg and Fe hydroxides nanoparticles on the activated carbon (AC) surface with best Mg/Fe molar ratio of 7.5/2.5. Mixture of 50% coated AC and 50% scrap iron was applied to eliminate SO42− from contaminated water with efficiency of 59% and maximum capacity of adsorption equals to 9.5 mg/g for a time period of 1 h, sorbent dosage 40 g/L, and initial pH = 5 at 50 mg/L initial SO42− concentration and 200 rpm shaking speed. Characterization analyses certified that the plantation of Mg and Fe nanoparticles onto AC was achieved. Continuous tests showed that the longevity of composite sorbent is increased with thicker bed and lower influent concentration and flow rate. Computer solution (COMSOL) software was well simulated for continuous measurements. The reclamation of real contaminated groundwater was achieved in column set-up with efficiency of 70% when flow rate was 5 mL/min, bed depth was 50 cm and inlet SO42− concentration was 2301 mg/L. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, estimating pan evaporation (Epan) was evaluated based on different input parameters: maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity, wind speed, and bright sunshine hours. The techniques used for estimating Epan were the artificial neural network (ANN), wavelet-based ANN (WANN), radial function-based support vector machine (SVM-RF), linear function-based SVM (SVM-LF), and multi-linear regression (MLR) models. The proposed models were trained and tested in three different scenarios (Scenario 1, Scenario 2, and Scenario 3) utilizing different percentages of data points. Scenario 1 includes 60%: 40%, Scenario 2 includes 70%: 30%, and Scenario 3 includes 80%: 20% accounting for the training and testing dataset, respectively. The various statistical tools such as Pearson's correlation coefficient (PCC), root mean square error (RMSE), Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), and Willmott Index (WI) were used to evaluate the performance of the models. The graphical representation, such as a line diagram, scatter plot, and the Taylor diagram, were also used to evaluate the proposed model's performance. The model results showed that the SVM-RF model's performance is superior to other proposed models in all three scenarios. The most accurate values of PCC, RMSE, NSE, and WI were found to be 0.607, 1.349, 0.183, and 0.749, respectively, for the SVM-RF model during Scenario 1 (60%: 40% training: testing) among all scenarios. This showed that with an increase in the sample set for training, the testing data would show a less accurate modeled result. Thus, the evolved models produce comparatively better outcomes and foster decision-making for water managers and planners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of remote sensing algorithms and increased access to satellite data, generating up-to-date, accurate land use/land cover (LULC) maps has become increasingly feasible for evaluating and managing changes in land cover as created by changes to ecosystem and land use. The main objective of our study is to evaluate the performance of Support Vector Machine (SVM), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC), Minimum Distance (MD), and Mahalanobis (MH) algorithms and compare them in order to generate a LULC map using data from Sentinel 2 and Landsat 8 satellites. Further, we also investigate the effect of a penalty parameter on SVM results. Our study uses different kernel functions and hidden layers for SVM and ANN algorithms, respectively. We generated the training and validation datasets from Google Earth images and GPS data prior to pre-processing satellite data. In the next phase, we classified the images using training data and algorithms. Ultimately, to evaluate outcomes, we used the validation data to generate a confusion matrix of the classified images. Our results showed that with optimal tuning parameters, the SVM classifier yielded the highest overall accuracy (OA) of 94%, performing better for both satellite data compared to other methods. In addition, for our scenes, Sentinel 2 date was slightly more accurate compared to Landsat 8. The parametric algorithms MD and MLC provided the lowest accuracy of 80.85% and 74.68% for the data from Sentinel 2 and Landsat 8. In contrast, our evaluation using the SVM tuning parameters showed that the linear kernel with the penalty parameter 150 for Sentinel 2 and the penalty parameter 200 for Landsat 8 yielded the highest accuracies. Further, ANN classification showed that increasing the hidden layers drastically reduces classification accuracy for both datasets, reducing zero for three hidden layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is one of the latest technologies for high spatial resolution 3D modeling of the Earth. The objectives of this study are to assess low-cost UAV data using image radiometric transformation techniques and investigate its effects on global and local accuracy of the Digital Surface Model (DSM). This research uses UAV Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data from 80 m and UAV Drone data from 300 and 500 m flying height. RAW UAV images acquired from 500 m flying height are radiometrically transformed in Matrix Laboratory (MATLAB). UAV images from 300 m flying height are processed for the generation of 3D point cloud and DSM in Pix4D Mapper. UAV LIDAR data are used for the acquisition of Ground Control Points (GCP) and accuracy assessment of UAV Image data products. Accuracy of enhanced DSM with DSM generated from 300 m flight height were analyzed for point cloud number, density and distribution. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) value of Z is enhanced from ±2.15 m to ±0.11 m. For local accuracy assessment of DSM, four different types of land covers are statistically compared with UAV LIDAR resulting in compatibility of enhancement technique with UAV LIDAR accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital elevation model (DEM) plays a vital role in hydrological modelling and environmental studies. Many essential layers can be extracted from this land surface information, including slope, aspect, rivers, and curvature. Therefore, DEM quality and accuracy will affect the extracted features and the whole process of modeling. Despite freely available DEMs from various sources, many researchers generate this information for their areas from various observations. Sentinal-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images are among the best Earth observations for DEM generation thanks to their availabilities, high-resolution, and C-band sensitivity to surface structure. This paper presents a comparative study, from a hydrological point of view, on the quality and reliability of the DEMs generated from Sentinel-1 data and DEMs from other sources such as AIRSAR, ALOS-PALSAR, TanDEM-X, and SRTM. To this end, pair of Sentinel-1 data were acquired and processed using the SAR interferometry technique to produce a DEM for two different study areas of a part of the Cameron Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia, a part of Sanandaj, Iran. Based on the estimated linear regression and standard errors, generating DEM from Sentinel-1 did not yield promising results. The river streams for all DEMs were extracted using geospatial analysis tool in a geographic information system (GIS) environment. The results indicated that because of the higher spatial resolution (compared to SRTM and TanDEM-X), more stream orders were delineated from AIRSAR and Sentinel-1 DEMs. Due to the shorter perpendicular baseline, the phase decorrelation in the created DEM resulted in a lot of noise. At the same time, results from ground control points (GCPs) showed that the created DEM from Sentinel-1 is not promising. Therefore, other DEMs' performance, such as 90-meters' TanDEM-X and 30-meters' SRTM, are better than Sentinel-1 DEM (with a better spatial resolution). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zrebar Lake is one of the largest freshwater lakes in Iran and it plays an important role in the ecosystem of the environment, while its desiccation has a negative impact on the surrounded ecosystem. Despite this, this lake provides an interesting recreation setting in terms of ecotourism. The prediction and forecasting of the water level of the lake through simple but practical methods can provide a reliable tool for future lake water resource management. In the present study, we predict the daily water level of Zrebar Lake in Iran through well-known decision tree-based algorithms, including the M5 pruned (M5P), random forest (RF), random tree (RT) and reduced error pruning tree (REPT). We used five different water input combinations to find the most effective one. For our modeling, we chose 70% of the dataset for training (from 2011 to 2015) and 30% for model evaluation (from 2015 to 2017). We evaluated the models' performances using different quantitative (root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), coefficient of determination (R2), percent bias (PBIAS) and ratio of the root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR)) and visual frameworks (Taylor diagram and box plot). Our results showed that water level with a one-day lag time had the highest effect on the result and, by increasing the lag time, its effect on the result was decreased. This result indicated that all the developed models had a good prediction capability, but the M5P model outperformed the others, followed by RF and RT equally and then REPT. Our results showed that these algorithms can predict water level accurately only with a one-day lag time in water level as an input and they are cost-effective tools for future predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy sector is integral to the wellbeing of the entire Iraqi economy and will remain so well into the future. In the current study, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology was used to estimate CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from oil refining and electricity generation in Iraq for a period exceeding 25 years. From 1990, Iraq experienced two wars and an economic siege, then faced political, social, and security instability, which affected its energy production. The results showed that the CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from the oil refining and electricity generation in Iraq experienced a sharp decline in the years 1991, 2003, and 2007 due to a decrease in the production of oil derivatives in refineries, according to political and security conditions. The total CO2 emissions from the types of fuel used in electricity generation in Iraq was approximately 14,000 Gg and 58,000 Gg in 1990 and 2017, respectively. The increase in CO2 emissions was greater than 300% between 1990 and 2017. The continued use of poor types of fuel, such as fuel oil and crude oil, will lead to an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from these sources, and higher levels of environmental pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Appropriate input selection for the estimation matrix is essential when modeling non-linear progression. In this study, the feasibility of the Gamma test (GT) was investigated to extract the optimal input combination as the primary modeling step for estimating monthly pan evaporation (EPm). A new artificial intelligent (AI) model called the co-active neuro-fuzzy inference system (CANFIS) was developed for monthly EPm estimation at Pantnagar station (located in Uttarakhand State) and Nagina station (located in Uttar Pradesh State), India. The proposed AI model was trained and tested using different percentages of data points in scenarios one to four. The estimates yielded by the CANFIS model were validated against several well-established predictive AI (multilayer perceptron neural network (MLPNN) and multiple linear regression (MLR)) and empirical (Penman model (PM)) models. Multiple statistical metrics (normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), Willmott index (WI), and relative error (RE)) and graphical interpretation (time variation plot, scatter plot, relative error plot, and Taylor diagram) were performed for the modeling evaluation. The results of appraisal showed that the CANFIS-1 model with six input variables provided better NRMSE (0.1364, 0.0904, 0.0947, and 0.0898), NSE (0.9439, 0.9736, 0.9703, and 0.9799), PCC (0.9790, 0.9872, 0.9877, and 0.9922), and WI (0.9860, 0.9934, 0.9927, and 0.9949) values for Pantnagar station, and NRMSE (0.1543, 0.1719, 0.2067, and 0.1356), NSE (0.9150, 0.8962, 0.8382, and 0.9453), PCC (0.9643, 0.9649, 0.9473, and 0.9762), and WI (0.9794, 0.9761, 0.9632, and 0.9853) values for Nagina stations in all applied modeling scenarios for estimating the monthly EPm. This study also confirmed the supremacy of the proposed integrated GT-CANFIS model under four different scenarios in estimating monthly EPm. The results of the current application demonstrated a reliable modeling methodology for water resource management and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predicting and mapping fire susceptibility is a top research priority in fire-prone forests worldwide. This study evaluates the abilities of the Bayes Network (BN), Naïve Bayes (NB), Decision Tree (DT), and Multivariate Logistic Regression (MLP) machine learning methods for the prediction and mapping fire susceptibility across the Pu Mat National Park, Nghe An Province, Vietnam. The modeling methodology was formulated based on processing the information from the 57 historical fires and a set of nine spatially explicit explanatory variables, namely elevation, slope degree, aspect, average annual temperate, drought index, river density, land cover, and distance from roads and residential areas. Using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and seven other performance metrics, the models were validated in terms of their abilities to elucidate the general fire behaviors in the Pu Mat National Park and to predict future fires. Despite a few differences between the AUC values, the BN model with an AUC value of 0.96 was dominant over the other models in predicting future fires. The second best was the DT model (AUC = 0.94), followed by the NB (AUC = 0.939), and MLR (AUC = 0.937) models. Our robust analysis demonstrated that these models are sufficiently robust in response to the training and validation datasets change. Further, the results revealed that moderate to high levels of fire susceptibilities are associated with ~19% of the Pu Mat National Park where human activities are numerous. This study and the resultant susceptibility maps provide a basis for developing more efficient fire-fighting strategies and reorganizing policies in favor of sustainable management of forest resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural land in the south of Iraq provides habitat for several types of living creatures. This land has a significant impact on the ecosystem. The agricultural land of Al-Hawizeh marsh covers an area of more than 3500 km2 and is considered an enriched resource to produce several harvests. A total of 74% of this area suffers from a high degree of salinity and chemical pollution, which needs to be remedied. Several human-made activities and post-war-related events have caused radical deterioration in soil quality in the agricultural land. The goal of this research was to integrate mathematical models, remote sensing data, and GIS to provide a powerful tool to predict, assess, monitor, manage, and map the salinity and chemical parameters of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), and zinc (Zn) in the soils of agricultural land in Al-Hawizeh marsh in southern Iraq during the four seasons of 2017. The mathematical model consists of four parts. The first depends on the B6 and B11 bands of Landsat-8, to calculate the soil moisture index (SMI). The second is the salinity equation (SE), which depends on the SMI result to retrieve the salinity values from Landsat-8 images. The third part depends on the B6 and B7 bands of Landsat-8, which calculates the clay chemical index (CCIs). The fourth part is the chemical equation (CE), which depends on the CCI to retrieve the chemical values (Fe, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Zn) from Landsat-8 images. The average salinity concentrations during autumn, summer, spring, and winter were 1175, 1010, 1105, and 1789 mg/dm3, respectively. The average Fe concentrations during autumn, summer, spring and winter were 813, 784, 842, and 1106 mg/dm3, respectively. The average Pb concentrations during autumn, summer, spring, and winter were 4.85, 3.79, 4.74, and 7.2 mg/dm3, respectively. The average Cu concentrations during autumn, summer, spring, and winter were 3.9, 3.1, 4.45, and 7.5 mg/dm3, respectively. The average Cr concentrations during autumn, summer, spring, and winter seasons were 1.28, 0.73, 1.03, and 2.91 mg/dm3, respectively. Finally, the average Zn concentrations during autumn, summer, spring, and winter were 8.25, 6, 7.05, and 12 mg/dm3, respectively. The results show that the concentrations of salinity and chemicals decreased in the summer and increased in the winter. The decision tree (DT) classification depended on the output results for salinity and chemicals for both SE and CE equations. This classification refers to all the parameters simultaneously in one stage. The output of DT classification results can display all the soil quality parameters (salinity, Fe, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Zn) in one image. This approach was repeated for each season in this study. In conclusion, the developed systematic and generic approach may constitute a basis for determining soil quality parameters in agricultural land worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mapping flood-prone areas is a key activity in flood disaster management. In this paper, we propose a new flood susceptibility mapping technique. We employ new ensemble models based on bagging as a meta-classifier and K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) coarse, cosine, cubic, and weighted base classifiers to spatially forecast flooding in the Haraz watershed in northern Iran. We identified flood-prone areas using data from Sentinel-1 sensor. We then selected 10 conditioning factors to spatially predict floods and assess their predictive power using the Relief Attribute Evaluation (RFAE) method. Model validation was performed using two statistical error indices and the area under the curve (AUC). Our results show that the Bagging–Cubic–KNN ensemble model outperformed other ensemble models. It decreased the overfitting and variance problems in the training dataset and enhanced the prediction accuracy of the Cubic–KNN model (AUC=0.660). We therefore recommend that the Bagging–Cubic–KNN model be more widely applied for the sustainable management of flood-prone areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cost and time performance are considered to be the most important aspects in the construction industry. The exceptional conditions that took place in Iraq since the beginning of the third millennia had a huge vicious impact on the cost and time performance of local construction projects. This may represent the principal motivation for the local authorities to enact some four successive legislations in order to control the performance of the construction industry. In this research, an evaluation is made to the cost and time performance of local construction projects and their variation due to the multiple changes in the internal factors that affect project performance, and changes in the surrounding events include legislative, economic, and security environment during the period that lasted from 2003 to 2014. Data is collected from 30 governmental projects to conduct the evaluation. A comprehensive questionnaire is performed to estimate a quantitative value for the impact of several factors that concern both the owner and the contractor, with special consideration to their variation through the successive legislation periods. These estimates are, in turn, utilized in a system dynamics model, in which the project development process is simulated. The final cost and duration changes in the project are accumulated in the form of stocks to give an indication of the cost and time performance of the project. The developed model returned a progressive reduction of 10.9% for the change in project cost and 135.37% for the change in project schedule throughout the eleven years period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global solar radiation prediction is highly desirable for multiple energy applications, such as energy production and sustainability, solar energy systems management, and lighting tasks for home use and recreational purposes. This research work designs a new approach and investigates the capability of novel data intelligent models based on the self-adaptive evolutionary extreme learning machine (SaE-ELM) algorithm to predict daily solar radiation in the Burkina Faso region. Four different meteorological stations are tested in the modeling process: Boromo, Dori, Gaoua and Po, located in West Africa. Various climate variables associated with the changes in solar radiation are utilized as the exploratory predictor variables through different input combinations used in the intelligent model (maximum and minimum air temperatures and humidity, wind speed, evaporation and vapor pressure deficits). The input combinations are then constructed based on the magnitude of the Pearson correlation coefficient computed between the predictors and the predictand, as a baseline method to determine the similarity between the predictors and the target variable. The results of the four tested meteorological stations show consistent findings, where the incorporation of all climate variables seemed to generate data intelligent models that performs with best prediction accuracy. A closer examination showed that the tested sites, Boromo, Dori, Gaoua and Po, attained the best performance result in the testing phase, with a root mean square error and a mean absolute error (RMSE-MAE [MJ/m2]) equating to about (0.72-0.54), (2.57-1.99), (0.88-0.65) and (1.17-0.86), respectively. In general, the proposed data intelligent models provide an excellent modeling strategy for solar radiation prediction, particularly over the Burkina Faso region in Western Africa. This study offers implications for solar energy exploration and energy management in data sparse regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate global solar radiation prediction is highly essential for related research on renewable energy sources. The cost implication and measurement expertise of global solar radiation emphasize that intelligence prediction models need to be applied. On the basis of long-term measured daily solar radiation data, this study uses a novel regularized online sequential extreme learning machine, integrated with variable forgetting factor (FOS-ELM), to predict global solar radiation at Bur Dedougou, in the Burkina Faso region. Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) is applied to build the seven input combinations based on speed (Wspeed), maximum and minimum temperature (Tmax and Tmin), maximum and minimum humidity (Hmax and Hmin), evaporation (Eo) and vapor pressure deficiency (VPD). For the difference input parameters magnitudes, seven models were developed and evaluated for the optimal input combination. Various statistical indicators were computed for the prediction accuracy examination. The experimental results of the applied FOS-ELM model demonstrated a reliable prediction accuracy against the classical extreme learning machine (ELM) model for daily global solar radiation simulation. In fact, compared to classical ELM, the FOS-ELM model reported an enhancement in the root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) by (68.8–79.8%). In summary, the results clearly confirm the effectiveness of the FOS-ELM model, owing to the fixed internal tuning parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]