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Off-grid electrification planning increasingly recognizes the importance of productive use of electricity (PUE) to promote community value creation and (financial) project sustainability. To ensure a sustainable and efficient integration in the community and energy system, PUE assets must be carefully evaluated to match both the community needs and the residential electricity demand patterns. We propose a novel methodology interlinking qualitative interviews, statistical analysis and energy system modeling to optimize decision making for PUE integration in off-grid energy systems in rural Madagascar by aligning relevant PUE effectively with anticipated residential electricity demand patterns based on socio-economic determinants of the community. We find that a possible contribution of the PUE to reducing the electricity costs depends significantly on three factors: (1) The residential electricity consumption patterns, which are influenced by the socio-economic composition of the community; (2) The degree of flexibility of (i) PUE assets and (ii) operational preferences of the PUE user; and (3) The capacity of community members to finance and operate PUE assets. Our study demonstrates that significant cost reductions for PUE-integrated off-grid energy systems can be achieved by applying our proposed methodology. When matching PUE and residential consumption patterns, the integration of PUE assets in residential community energy systems can reduce the financial risk for operators, provided the PUE enterprise operates reliably and sustainably. We highlight that the consideration of local value chains and co-creation approaches are essential to ensure the energy system is addressing the community's needs, creates value for the community, enhances the project's financial sustainability and is achieving the overall objectives of decentralized energy system planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inaccessibility of modern energy in low-income countries (LIC), especially in the Sub-Saharan African (SSA) region, continues to be a problem in the 21st century. The lack of access to modern energy has led to an inability to implement developmental structures and initiatives. While considerable progress and successes have been realised in the last three decades with increased activities and global commitments from international governments and multinational agencies through electrification projects in the SSA region, SSA countries remain off-track in their efforts to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7. This is mainly demonstrated in sparsely populated rural regions where the high cost of centralised power generation, poor transmission and distribution infrastructures and economic factors have been a major barrier to electricity expansion. Although the use of RES (i.e., decentralised or stand-alone systems) have been acknowledged by the International Energy Agency (IEA) to be the least expensive route to improving access, its impact has not been effectively demonstrated regionally. Decentralised RES use in SSA countries have not seen significant uptake and/or enjoyed long-term sustainability owing to a number of factors. Malawi, despite its significant hydropower resources and the favourable proximity of its inhabitants to grid infrastructures, still has one of the lowest levels of access to electricity globally, with 86% of the population having no access to electricity. The country provides a good case study to investigate factors limiting electricity access in SSA countries. This paper explores the main issues that have historically hindered the uptake and sustainable operation of decentralised RES in the country. Recommendations to facilitate a potential improvement in RES use as a pathway to improved universal energy access are then put forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the constraints associated with grid expansion costs, limited access to reliable electricity, and priorities in addressing the climate agenda and Sustainable Development Goals in low-income countries, microgrids and off-grid solar projects represent a viable solution for rural electrification. This type of solution has the advantage of being less expensive than conventional technologies, is rapidly scalable, affordable, environmentally sustainable, and can play a critical role in empowering rural communities. In this context, this study proposed a spatial framework for off-grid solar energy planning based on a Geographical Information System and Boolean logic, Fuzzy logic, and Analytic Hierarchy Process Multicriteria Decision-Making methods. The results of the applied methodology show that the selection of optimal locations for off-grid solar photovoltaic microgrid projects in Mozambique is significantly influenced by the following order of criteria: climatology, orography, technical and location, social, and institutional criteria. Geographically, about 49% or 344,664.36 km2 of the total study area is initially suitable for an off-grid solar photovoltaic microgrid project; 4% is low suitable, 14% is moderately suitable, 18% is suitable, and 13% is highly suitable. However, 51% of the ranked areas fall into the not feasible and restricted areas, mainly in conservation areas, protected areas, and areas at high risk of flooding and cyclones, covering a total of 387,005.5 km2 within the study area. In general, the approach helps to reduce uncertainty and increase flexibility to identify appropriate sites and strengthen indicators of sustainable development impacts of decentralized rural electrification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of the United Nations' (UN) Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7), SDG target 7.1 recognizes universal electrification and the provision of clean cooking fuel as two fundamental challenges for global society. Faltering progress toward SDG target 7.1 calls for innovative technologies to stimulate advancements. Hydrogen has been proposed as a versatile energy carrier to be applied in both pillars of SDG target 7.1: electrification and clean cooking. This paper conducts a semi-systematic literature review to provide the status quo of research on the application of hydrogen in the rationale of SDG 7.1, covering the technical integration pathways, as well as the key economic, environmental, and social aspects of its use. We identify decisive factors for the future development of hydrogen use in the rationale of SDG target 7.1 and, by complementing our analysis with insights from the related literature, propose future avenues of research. The literature on electrification proposes that hydrogen can serve as a backup power supply in rural off-grid communities. While common electrification efforts aim to supply appliances that use lower amounts of electricity, a hydrogen-based power supply can satisfy appliances with higher power demands including electric cook stoves, while simultaneously supporting clean cooking efforts. Alternatively, with the exclusive aim of stimulating clean cooking, hydrogen is proposed to be used as a clean cooking fuel via direct combustion in distribution and utilization infrastructures analogous to Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). While expected economic and technical developments are seen as likely to render hydrogen technologies economically competitive with conventional fossil fuels in the future, the potential of renewably produced hydrogen usage to reduce climate-change impacts and point-of-use emissions is already evident today. Social benefits are likely when meeting essential safety standards, as a hydrogen-based power supply offers service on a high tier that might overachieve SDG 7.1 ambitions, while hydrogen cooking via combustion fits into the existing social habits of LPG users. However, the literature lacks clear evidence on the social impact of hydrogen usage. Impact assessments of demonstration projects are required to fill this research gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Affordable and clean energy for any rural community is crucial for the sustainable development of the community and the nation at large. The utilization of diesel-based power generation is one of the barriers to the sustainable development of these communities. Such generations require fuel that has a volatile market price and emits massive greenhouse gas emissions. This paper presents the design, modeling, and simulation of a hybrid power system for a rural area in the Sultanate of Oman that aims to reduce daily consumption of diesel fuel and greenhouse gas emissions. Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER) is utilized to model multiple energy mix hybrid systems and to propose the best optimal energy mix system for a selected community. In addition, Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) software is employed to assess hybrid system operational performances, such as bus voltage profiles and active and reactive power losses. This study revealed that the PV–wind–diesel system is the optimal energy mix hybrid microgrid for the Al-Dhafrat rural area in Oman, with a net present cost of USD 14.09 million. Compared to the currently operating diesel-based system, the deployment of this microgrid can reduce the levelized cost of energy, diesel fuel consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions per year by 54.56%, 70.44%, and 70.40%, respectively. This study confirms that the Sultanate of Oman has a substantial opportunity to install a hybrid microgrid system for rural diesel-based communities to achieve sustainable development in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rural electrification of Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia is crucial to end the energy poverty in which around 1 billion people are trapped. Swarm electrification, i.e., the progressive building of decentralized and decarbonized electric infrastructure in a bottom-up manner, tackles rural electrification challenges by quickly providing modern and reliable electricity services to unelectrified communities while fostering local socio-economic development. This paper follows the technological approach of this electrification model and presents the development of a DC microgrid with decentralized production and storage suitable for rural electrification. This DC microgrid aims at interconnecting nanogrids, small collective autonomous power units composed of a solar panel and a lead–acid battery for 4 to 6 households, to increase the electrical services brought to the community and enhance the economic sustainability of this rural electrification model. The design of the proposed microgrid as well as its control algorithm are thoroughly addressed and tested from software simulations and experimental testing to field deployment in Madagascar. Extensive software, experimental and field-tests results are illustrated, and the microgrid design feedback is given. This paper overall validates the proper operation of the proposed microgrid, confirming the technical feasibility of the swarm electrification approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines different off-grid renewable energy-based electrification schemes for an informal settlement in Windhoek, Namibia. It presents a techno-economic comparison between the deployment of solar home systems to each residence and the supplying power from either a centralized roof-mounted or ground-mounted hybrid microgrid. The objective is to find a feasible energy system that satisfies technical and user constraints at a minimum levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and net present cost (NPC). Sensitivity analyses are performed on the ground-mounted microgrid to evaluate the impact of varying diesel fuel price, load demand, and solar photovoltaic module cost on system costs. HOMER Pro software is used for system sizing and optimization. The results show that a hybrid system comprising a solar photovoltaic, a diesel generator, and batteries offers the lowest NPC and LCOE for both electrification schemes. The LCOE for the smallest residential load of 1.7 kWh/day and the largest microgrid load of 5.5 MWh/day is USD 0.443/kWh and USD 0.380/kWh, respectively. Respective NPCs are USD 4738 and USD 90.8 million. A sensitivity analysis reveals that variation in the fuel price and load demand changes linearly with system costs and capacities. However, reducing the PV module price in an energy system that includes wind and diesel power sources does not offer significant benefits. Furthermore, deploying an energy system that relies on fossil fuels to each residence in an informal settlement is not environmentally responsible. Unintended negative environmental impacts may result from the mass and simultaneous use of diesel generators. Therefore, a microgrid is recommended for its ability to control the dispatch of diesel generation, and its scalability, reliability of supply, and property security. A roof-mounted microgrid can be considered for piloting due to its lower initial investment. The electricity tariff also needs to be subsidized to make it affordable to end-users. Equally, government and community involvement should be prioritized to achieve long-term economic sustainability of the microgrid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: The tool proposed in this work was conceived in order to serve as a preliminary instrument to size multi-energy rural energy systems, in the context of reaching universal access to energy as part of Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7). In addition to its main purpose, we believe this tool might be of interest in the study of integrated smart energy districts and in general integrated energy systems with high penetration of renewables, where the interaction among different kinds of energy demands is considered. Energy system models for off-grid systems usually tend to focus solely on the provision of electricity for powering simple appliances, thus neglecting more energy-intensive and critical needs, such as water heating. The adoption of a Multi-Energy System (MES) perspective would allow us not only to provide comprehensive solutions addressing all types of energy demand, but also to exploit synergies between the electric and thermal sectors. To this end, we expand an existing open-source micro-grid optimization model with a complementary thermal model. Results show how the latter achieves optimal solutions that are otherwise restricted, allowing for a reduction in the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of 59% compared to a conventional microgrid, and an increase of reliance on renewable sources of 70%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Universal access to energy is a global challenge for sustainable development that requires granting last-mile access to energy services to rural and isolated communities. However, achieving access is not sufficient: it must be done affordably, reliably and with an adequate quality. Universal access to energy goes beyond the mere selection of a technical solution or infrastructure; it demands being able to design management models for projects aiming to guarantee that households may access energy services in a sustainable way. This study analyzes the main elements (i.e., governance, technological and business models) of management models in universal access to energy projects and their impact on the different dimensions of sustainability (i.e., social, environmental, and economic). The study then presents three case studies of rural electrification projects having different configurations of the management model, with special focus on the differences in the business model, and it analyzes their outcomes from a sustainability perspective. The analysis of the three case studies suggests that the choice of the business model is key to ensuring sustainability, with fee-for-service models giving the best results. The analysis also highlights the importance of collaboration and involvement of the communities in projects engaging multiple agents with different roles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electrical power sector plays an important role in the economic growth and development of every country around the world. Total global demand for electric energy is growing both in developed and developing economies. The commitment to the decarbonization of economies, which would mean replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources (RES) as well as the electrification of transport and heating as a means to tackle global warming and dangerous climate change, would lead to a surge in electricity consumption worldwide. Hence, it appears reasonable that the electric power sector should embed the principles of sustainable development into its functioning and operation. In addition, events such as the recent European gas crisis that have emerged as a result of the massive deployment of renewables need to be studied and prevented. This review aims at assessing the role of the renewable energy in the sustainable development of the electrical power sector, focusing on the energy providers and consumers represented both by businesses and households that are gradually becoming prosumers on the market of electric energy. Furthermore, it also focuses on the impact of renewables on the utility side and their benefits for the grid. In addition, it identifies the major factors of the sustainable development of the electrical power sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fleet electrification is one of the measures proposed for achieving climate neutrality in the coming years. The replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles with electric vehicles has a positive impact on carbon emission reduction in some countries. However, in countries highly dependent on fossil fuels, such a possibility requires examination with respect to the means of electricity generation and fuel mix used in their power systems. One such country is Poland, selected as an example of an economy strongly dependent on fossil fuels. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the impact of fleet electrification of an individual company located in Poland on the reduction of carbon emissions. The concept and calculations are based on historical data on the single-year mileage and fuel consumption of 619 cars used by this company. Even though the Polish power system is based on fossil fuels, fleet electrification could contribute to a reduction in carbon emissions of 24%. The decrease in operational costs by EUR 370 thousand/year is also significant. Apart from environmental and economic impacts, this paper provides valuable findings on the difference between catalogue and real-driving data application in the various analyses. With respect to Polish fuel mix in 2019, the application of data published by car producers shows that fleet electrification would increase carbon emissions by 14% in this company. This means that depending on the initial assumptions, different conclusions can be drawn by policymakers, regulatory bodies, academics, or other groups of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainable development of micro-hydropower (MHP) plants is a challenge for rural electrification in developing countries, especially in Indonesia, which has diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and traditions in several isolated locations due to its complex terrain. The uniqueness of a social situation in a location can affect the sustainable electrification development. This study aimed to assess the sustainable development of MHP plants in the Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, which has unique traditions and cultural characteristics. The assessment was conducted using the sustainable development indicator (SDI) method, the Ilskog method, which can include social, economic, environmental, technical, and institutional dimensions. Data were collected through field investigations and qualitative dialogs to understand the culture and ways of thinking. The results of the Ilskog method analysis revealed that the environmental dimensions had the highest scores, whereas economic dimensions had the lowest scores, indicating that the cultural background of the Kasepuhan Ciptagelar impacted the SDI scores. This was attributable to the decision of Kasepuhan's traditional leader, which strengthened the community commitment to renewable energy use. However, the cultural background adversely impacted monetary income to sustain MHP plants. This study proposed that community innovation and microcredit availability could improve productive activities, resulting in better economic conditions to sustain MHP plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrification plays a crucial role in the advancement of rural communities but establishing its impact to the communities' sustainable development remains a challenge. This paper presents a pragmatic framework for assessing how electrification affects sustainable development at the grassroots level with eight indicators in the economic, technical, social, and environmental dimensions highlighted. An exploratory factor analysis approach is applied to determine how these dimensions contribute to the community's overall sustainable development. The framework is applied in two islands in the Philippines of less than 500 households and varying electrification levels. Results indicate that Gilutongan Island, which has less than 24-h electricity access rarely find productive uses of electricity and still make use of conventional fuels for lighting. Meanwhile, Cobrador Island, which has 24-h access see improvements in almost all aspects, although they are slightly burdened by the unaffordability of tariffs. This means that islands with limited hours for electricity access rarely experience positive impacts to their socioeconomic development while the opposite is true for islands with longer access. The framework can be a useful tool for decision- and policy-makers to assess electrification in rural off-grid communities and to streamline efforts in helping these communities achieve sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scientific community is active in developing new models and methods to help reach the ambitious target set by UN SDGs7: universal access to electricity by 2030. Efficient planning of distribution networks is a complex and multivariate task, which is usually split into multiple subproblems to reduce the number of variables. The present work addresses the problem of optimal secondary substation siting, by means of different clustering techniques. In contrast with the majority of approaches found in the literature, which are devoted to the planning of MV grids in already electrified urban areas, this work focuses on greenfield planning in rural areas. K-means algorithm, hierarchical agglomerative clustering, and a method based on optimal weighted tree partitioning are adapted to the problem and run on two real case studies, with different population densities. The algorithms are compared in terms of different indicators useful to assess the feasibility of the solutions found. The algorithms have proven to be effective in addressing some of the crucial aspects of substations siting and to constitute relevant improvements to the classic K-means approach found in the literature. However, it is found that it is very challenging to conjugate an acceptable geographical span of the area served by a single substation with a substation power high enough to justify the installation when the load density is very low. In other words, well known standards adopted in industrialized countries do not fit with developing countries' requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar hybrid mini-grid systems possess the potential to substantially support electrification in sub-Saharan Africa. While their technical reliability has been proven, their financial viability is achieved only by heavy subsidization as of now. Due to the growing importance of results-based financing, we ask whether newly developed business models leveraging on the value added of electricity supply in rural areas (such as the KeyMaker Model) bare the potential to substantially reduce amount of grants required to finance the initial capital investment and thus contribute to a sustainable form of development. The principle of the KeyMaker Model is based on utilizing the locally supplied mini-grid electricity to establish a local agro-processing project, the revenues of which are an additional income stream for the mini-grid operator, while the project creates an end-market for the local farmers to sell their produce. We have developed two scenarios (without and with KeyMaker Model) for four rural villages in Nigeria as a case study to scientifically assess the potential of KeyMaker Models. We simulated and optimized the mini-grid systems using the software tool HOMER. We then assessed their financial viability. Our analysis demonstrates grant finance requirements ranging from 82% to 99% of the total investment for the base-case mini-grid projects without consideration of the KeyMaker Model. We find that a well-selected KeyMaker Model such as cocoa bean processing reduced the grant requirement by 68 percentage points, while processes based on maize, palm oil and cassava processing achieved reductions of 36, 26 and 8 percentage points, respectively. Hence, we conclude that the value added by the introduction of new local business models bares the potential to reduce grant requirements for the socially and economically necessary electrification across the Global South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable Development Goals establish the main challenges humankind is called to tackle to assure equal comfort of living worldwide. Among these, the access to affordable renewable energy and clean water are overriding, especially in the context of developing economies. Reversible Solid Oxide Cells (rSOC) are a pivotal technology for their sector-coupling potential. This paper aims at studying the implementation of such a technology in new concept PV-hybrid energy storage mini-grids with close access to seawater. In such assets, rSOCs have a double useful effect: charge/discharge of the bulk energy storage combined with seawater desalination. Based on the outcomes of an experimental proof-of-concept on a single cell operated with salty water, the operation of the novel mini-grid is simulated throughout a solar year. Simulation results identify the fittest mini-grid configuration in order to achieve energy and environmental optimization, hence scoring a renewable penetration of more than 95%, marginal CO2 emissions (13 g/kWh), and almost complete coverage of load demand. Sector-coupling co-production rate (desalinated water versus electricity issued from the rSOC) is 0.29 L/kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the world has pledged to "leaving no one behind". Responding to goal No. 7 on the agenda, efforts to provide modern energy to all the world population must be pushed forward. This is important because electrification in the rural area can indirectly support opportunities for social and economic development resulting in an acceleration of the eradication of poverty. The research goal of this study is to contribute insights about the scale of energy demand in unelectrified villages in the Southeast Asian countries and to discuss some factors that might influence the energy demand growth. This is done by making projections based on surveys and interviews, including a time-use survey, in three off-grid villages located in Myanmar, Indonesia, and Laos. Our analysis presented the living condition, highlight the types of energy sources, how, and in what rhythms people use energy on a daily basis in those villages. The demands in each case study villages were then projected based on several constructed scenarios. It was found that the factors of household size, proximity to the city, climate, and topography may influence the present and future growth of energy demands in the villages. The estimated energy demand may be useful for project managers to design a pilot off-grid energy system project in a similar environment and pointed out important factors to consider when formulating off-grid energy policies in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to study the impact of using micro-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural areas in the West Bank, Palestine. These systems may have the potential to provide rural electrification and encourage rural development, as PV panels are now becoming more financially attractive due to their falling costs. The implementation of solar PV systems in such areas improves social and communal services, water supply and agriculture, as well as other productive activities. It may also convert these communities into more environmentally sustainable ones. The present paper details two case studies from Palestine and shows the inter-relation between energy, water and food in rural areas to demonstrate how the availability of sustainable energy can ensure water availability, improve agricultural productivity and increase food security. Further, the paper attempts to evaluate the technical and economic impacts of the application of nexus approaches to Palestine's rural areas. The results of this study are for a real implemented project and predict the long-term success of small, sustainable energy projects in developing rural areas in Palestine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global COVID-19 pandemic has had strong impacts on national and international freight, construction and tourism industry, supply chains, and has resulted in a rapid decline in the demand for traditional energy sources. In fact, research has outlined that urban areas depend on global supply chains for their day-to-day basic functions, including energy supplies, food and safe access to potable water. The disruption of global supply chains can leave many urban areas in a very vulnerable position, in which their citizens may struggle to obtain their basic supplies, as the COVID-19 crisis has recently shown. Therefore, solutions aiming to enhance local food, water and energy production systems, even in urban environments, have to be pursued. The COVID-19 crisis has also highlighted in the scientific community the problem of people's exposure to outdoor and indoor pollution, confirmed as a key element for the increase both in the transmission and severity of the contagion, on top of involving health risks on their own. In this context, most nations are going to adopt new preferential policies to stimulate the development of relevant sustainable energy industries, based on the electrification of the systems supplied by renewable energy sources as confirmed by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Thus, while there is ongoing research focusing on a COVID 19 vaccine, there is also a need for researchers to work cooperatively on novel strategies for world economic recovery incorporating renewable energy policy, technology and management. In this framework, the Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems (SDEWES) conference provides a good platform for researchers and other experts to exchange their academic thoughts, promoting the development and improvements on the renewable energy technologies as well as their role in systems and in the transition towards sustainable energy systems. The 14th SDEWES Conference was held in Dubrovnik, Croatia. It brought together around 570 researchers from 55 countries in the field of sustainable development. The present Special Issue of Energies, specifically dedicated to the 14th SDEWES Conference, focuses on four main fields: energy policy for sustainable development, biomass energy application, building energy saving, and power plant and electric systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2003, Brazil has striven to provide energy access to all, in rural areas, in an effort to economically empower the communities. Unpacking fuel stacking behaviour can shed light onto the speed of transition toward the exclusive use of advanced fuel types. This paper presents findings from surveys that were carried out with 14 non-electrified communities in a rural area of Rio Negro, Amazonas State, Brazil. We identify the fuel choice determinants in these communities using a multinomial logistic regression model and more generally discuss the validity and robustness of such models in the context of statistical validation and evaluation metrics. Specifically for the Amazonas communities considered in this study, the research showed that the fuel choice determinants are the age of household, the number of people at meals each day, the number of meals daily, the community, education of the household head, and the income level of the household. Moreover, given the Brazilian policies related to energy and sustainability, this region is not likely to reach the Sustainable Development Goals proposed by United Nations for 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy access remains a challenge for many countries, as recognized by sustainable development goal 7 of the United Nations Development Programme. Although the Myanmar government has set a target of 100% electrification by 2030, less than half of the households are currently connected to the national grid. To expedite electrification, decentralized approaches should be considered. Mini-grids are an effective alternative that can fill the gap between a solar home system and the national grid; however, many of the existing mini-grids in Myanmar are powered by diesel generators. Diesel fuel is significantly more expensive in rural areas than in urban areas due to high transportation costs. Although mini-grids powered by solar photovoltaics and batteries are cost-competitive with diesel generators, the deployment of renewable energy-based mini-grids is slow. In this study, we analyzed the barriers to mini-grid deployment and prioritized the barriers. We conducted a questionnaire survey with stakeholders using the analytic hierarchy process to identify the prioritization of each barrier factor. The K-means clustering method was used to determine tendencies and showed that there was no single, dominant solution. Our results confirm the difficulty of mini-grid deployment and suggest multi-pronged approaches that go beyond economic considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The principle of sustainable development is becoming more and more prominent in various schools, and the eco-campus in rural areas often has more room for display. The identification and assessment of cost-effective biomass resources appropriate for recycling represent an opportunity that may significantly improve the comprehensive efficiency of an eco-campus system, resulting in remarkable investment savings, pollution reduction, as well as reducing energy consumption and resources waste. The economic feasibility of two biogas-linked rural campus systems (Fanjiazhai Middle School, FJZ and Xidazhai Middle School, XDZ, Yangling, China), as well as their key technologies, is investigated, the two systems respectively represent two biobased agricultural production modes. It is found that the initial investment, operating investment, and total revenue of FJZ system is 1.37 times, 2.39 times, and 1.71 times of XDZ system respectively, thus indicating that FJZ campus is proved to be a "larger" system compared to the other one. The operating costs show that reasonable control of labor and transportation costs should be carried out to optimize the economic feasibility of the system. After considering the system's economic credits obtained from using biogas slurry flushing system and avoiding waste management, the net present value of XDZ system had increased to its 1.5 times, while the FJZ system had increased to its 135%. From the perspective of revenue to investment ratio, XDZ system has a better profit earning efficiency compared to FJZ system. The sensitivity analysis indicates that biogas price, fruit yield, labor use are main factors that have the greatest impacts on the economic performance of these eco-campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]