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Background and Aim: Children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (heFH) are at risk of premature atherosclerosis. Aims of this study were: (a) to longitudinally evaluate the endothelial dysfunction, estimated through brachial flow mediated dilation (FMD), as first sign of subclinical atherogenesis in a group of children and adolescents affected by heFH in comparison to normo-lipidemic controls, and (b) to identify predictive factors influencing the endothelial function and its development in the same cohort of patients., Methods: This is a prospective, longitudinal and cross-sectional study. Physical examination, plasma lipid profile and brachial artery FMD were measured at baseline and after follow-up., Results: At baseline, FMD did not differ between heFH children (n.24, median age 9.71) and controls (n. 24, median age 10.29) (7.67 ± 9.26 vs. 11.18 ± 7.28 %, p 0.09). Nevertheless, during follow-up (median length of lipid-lowering diet 4.52 years), FMD got worse in 54% of heFH subjects and its worsening correlated to the increasing of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (r -0.21, p < 0.05). Moreover, being male (β -0.46, p 0.03), undergoing puberty (β -0.61, p 0.03) and increasing of body mass index standard deviation score (β -0.39, p 0.03) were identified as main independent predictor factors of FMD drop., Conclusions: During the first decades of life, not only hypercholesterolemia, but also clusters of pro-atherogenic conditions and their persistence, could affect the endothelial function and its trend. (www.actabiomedica.it).

According to Barker's hypothesis, sub-optimal conditions during gestation might affect the predisposition for diseases in adulthood. Alteration in endocrine functions during pregnancy, such us thyroid function or glucose metabolism, are not exempt. It is well known that subclinical hypothyroidism and thyroperoxidase antibodies-positive euthyroidism during early pregnancy are associated with increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and both conditions influence pregnancy outcome and newborn development and metabolism at short and long terms. Fetal production of thyroid hormones starts from the 12th week of gestational age. The transplacental passage of maternal thyroxine (T4) is therefore essential for the fetal neurological development, especially during the first half of pregnancy.  If this passage is interrupted, such as in premature birth, neonates are more susceptible to develop impaired thyroid function, because of physiological immaturity of their hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, acute illnesses and stressful events (sepsis, invasive procedures, drugs). The aim of this review is to investigate the short and long term effects of maternal dysthyroidisms on term and preterm newborns, with particular attention to the metabolic and thyroid consequences. Metabolic syndrome, higher body mass index and greater waist circumference, seem to be more prevalent in children of TPO-Ab-positive mothers. Maternal hypothyroidism may be associated with higher risk of gestational diabetes and adverse birth outcomes, such as preeclampsia, preterm delivery, fetal death and low birth weight offspring.  In adulthood, preterm (< 37 weeks of gestational age) or low birth weight (<2.500 g) newborns  seem to be more susceptible to develop gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, type 2 diabetes mellitus and behavioral alterations.

Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, worldwide population's lifestyle has changed dramatically, causing psychosocial consequences.  Patients presenting a preexisting chronic condition, as Type 1 Diabetes (T1D), are the ones suffering the most from this situation. Moreover, people affected by diabetes are the ones with the worst prognosis, if infected by SARS-CoV-2.  We analyzed why patients with T1D were poorly represented between the subjects hospitalized for COVID-19 and why the cases of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) were fewer and more severe compared with the past years. Furthermore, literature has showed how patients of all ages with T1D did not experience a deterioration in their glucose control throughout the lockdown. Among other causes, this is also due to the surging use of telemedicine. Finally, we tried to understand how the coronavirus tropism for endocrine tissues could influence the future epidemiology of T1D, focusing on the effects they have on pancreatic β-cells.

Introduction: Distal renal tubular acidosis is a rare genetic disease, characterised by deficit in renal tubular transport. Clinical features are metabolic acidosis with hypercloraemia and hypokalemia, and inability in urine acidification. Hypercalciuria may also be present, often treated with the use of a diuretic therapy with thiazides., Case Presentation: We present a severe disease onset in a neonate with consanguineous parents, both autosomal-recessive for an ATP6VOA4 gene mutation, and a nevertheless severe episode of metabolic alkalosis, occurred in the same patient after few months, during the diuretic therapy., Conclusion: Biochemical results lead us to hypothesize a susceptibility to the treatment that need further investigations.

Background: Non-typhoid Salmonella (NTS) is an important cause of bacterial meningitis in newborn and infants in developing countries, but rarely in industrialized ones. We describe an unusual presentation of bacterial meningitis in an infant, focusing on his diagnostic and therapeutic management., Case Report: An Italian two-month old male presented high fever and diarrhea with blood, associated with irritability. Inflammatory markers were high, cerebrospinal fluid analysis was compatible with bacterial meningitides but microbiological investigations were negative. Salmonella enteritidis was isolated from blood. Cerebral ultrasound and MRI showed periencephalic collection of purulent material. Specific antibiotic therapy with cefotaxime was initiated with improvement of clinical conditions and blood tests. Brain MRI follow up improved progressively., Conclusions: Most of pediatric patients with NTS infection develop self-limited gastroenteritis, but in 3-8% of the cases complications such as bacteremia and meningitis may occur, especially in weak patients. Cerebral imaging can be useful to identify neurological findings. Although there is no standardized treatment for this condition, specific antibiotic therapy for at least four weeks is recommended. Neuroimaging follow up is required due to high risk of relapse.

The rise in obesity rates is an alarming global health concern. Despite obesity is mainly due to an unbalanced energy intake and expenditure, several recent studies suggest that it could be a consequence of exposure during critical developmental windows to environmental chemicals disrupting endocrine functions. This suggests that a shift is occurring in the human body pathways used to integrate changing nutritional and environmental variables and to maintain metabolic balance and body weight. This review highlights the role of pesticides, in particular endocrine disrupter ones, on obesity pathogenesis in childhood and summarizes the current under-standing of the major environmental influences on pediatric obesity. (www.actabiomedica.it).

The 90% of Hodgkin's disease (HD) cases are originated by lymphnodes whereas 10% by extranodal regions as epidural space. Neurologic complications of HD can be classified as directly resulting from the disease or indirectly originated from the disease or from its treatment. Patients very rarely present with spinal cord compression (SCC)  due to epidural HD. Few cases of HD with such presentation have been reported in the literature. Primary spinal extradural HD with no further organ involvement is extremely rare. We report a case of a child with SCC as initial and unique presentation of HD.