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Purpose: To examine monocular and binocular visual function and patient-reported outcomes after implantation of multifocal IOLs (mIOLs) or monofocal IOLs, using a rigorous series of clinical assessments. Setting: BMI Southend Hospital, United Kingdom. Design: Prospective, randomized, double-masked clinical trial. Methods: One hundred patients were randomized for bilateral implantation of either a Bi-Flex 677MY mIOL or a Bi-Flex 677AB IOL and were assessed at 3 to 6 months (V1) and 12 to 18 months (V2). Primary outcomes included distance, intermediate, and near logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR) visual acuities (VAs) and defocus curve profile assessment. Secondary outcomes included reading speed, contrast sensitivity (CS), and the subjective perception of quality of vision. Results: Forty-seven subjects with monofocal IOL and 43 mIOL subjects completed the study. Uncorrected (mIOL: 0.10 +/- 0.09 logMAR; IOL: 0.09 +/- 0.11 logMAR) and corrected (mIOL: 0.04 +/- 0.06 logMAR; IOL: 0.01 +/- 0.07 logMAR) distance VAs were comparable (P >.05). Uncorrected near VA (mIOL: 0.23 +/- 0.13 logMAR; IOL: 0.55 +/- 0.20 logMAR, P <.001) and distance-corrected near VA (mIOL: 0.24 +/- 0.13 logMAR; IOL: 0.54 +/- 0.17 logMAR, P <.001) were significantly improved with mIOLs. There was no significant difference in distance-corrected intermediate VA (mIOL: 0.38 +/- 0.13 logMAR; IOL: 0.39 +/- 0.13 logMAR, P =.431). Defocus curves demonstrated an increased range-of-focus among mIOLs (mIOL: 4.14 +/- 1.10 diopter [D]; IOL: 2.57 +/- 0.77 D). Pelli-Robson CS was different at V1 (P <.001) but similar by V2 (P =.059). Overall satisfaction was high (>90%) in both groups for distance tasks whereas significantly different for near tasks (mIOL, 18.45 +/- 16.53 logUnits; IOL, 55.59 +/- 22.52 logUnits). Conclusions: Uncorrected near visual acuity was demonstrably better with mIOLs and there was greater subjective satisfaction with quality of near vision. Halos reported by the mIOL group were significant compared with the IOL group but did not show an adverse effect on overall satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: BDI is the most common serious complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. To address this problem, a multi-society consensus conference was held to develop evidenced-based recommendations for safe cholecystectomy and prevention of BDI. Methods: Literature reviews were conducted for 18 key questions across 6 broad topics around cholecystectomy directed by a steering group and subject experts from 5 surgical societies (Society of Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons, Americas Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, International Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, and European Association for Endoscopic Surgery). Evidence-based recommendations were formulated using the grading of recommendations assessment, development, and evaluation methodology. When evidence-based recommendations could not be made, expert opinion was documented. A number of recommendations for future research were also documented. Recommendations were presented at a consensus meeting in October 2018 and were voted on by an international panel of 25 experts with greater than 80% agreement considered consensus. Results: Consensus was reached on 17 of 18 questions by the guideline development group and expert panel with high concordance from audience participation. Most recommendations were conditional due to low certainty of evidence. Strong recommendations were made for (1) use of intraoperative biliary imaging for uncertainty of anatomy or suspicion of biliary injury; and (2) referral of patients with confirmed or suspected BDI to an experienced surgeon/multispecialty hepatobiliary team. Conclusions: These consensus recommendations should provide guidance to surgeons, training programs, hospitals, and professional societies for strategies that have the potential to reduce BDIs and positively impact patient outcomes. Development of clinical and educational research initiatives based on these recommendations may drive further improvement in the quality of surgical care for patients undergoing cholecystectomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A workshop on "Simulation Research in Gastrointestinal and Urologic Care: Challenges and Opportunities" was held at the National Institutes of Health in June 2016. The purpose of the workshop was to examine the extent to which simulation approaches have been used by skilled proceduralists (not trainees) caring for patientswith gastrointestinal and urologic diseases. The current status of research findings in the use and effectiveness of simulation applications was reviewed, and numerous knowledge gaps and research needs were identified by the faculty and the attendees. The paradigmof "deliberate practice," rather than mere repetition, and the value of coaching by experts was stressed by those who have adopted simulation in music and sports.Models that are most useful for the adoption of simulation by expert clinicians have yet to be fully validated. Initial studies on the impact of simulation on safety and error reduction have demonstrated its value in the training domain, but the role of simulation as a strategy for increased procedural safety remains uncertain in the world of the expert practitioner. Although the basic requirements for experienced physicians to acquire new skills have been explored, the widespread availability of such resources is an unrealized goal, and there is a need for well-designed outcome studies to establish the role of simulation in improving the quality of health care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate the functional result of chronic total occlusion percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) measured by fractional flow reserve (FFR) immediately post the index procedure and at short-term follow-up. Methods and Results: This was a prospective single-center observational study. Consecutive patients with right coronary artery chronic total occlusion scheduled for elective PCI were included. FFR measurements were performed immediately after successful PCI and at 4 months follow-up. Twenty-six patients completed baseline and follow-up measurements. Mean age was 61.2±9.7 years, 88.5% of the patients were male, and 19.2% were diabetic. The mean FFR immediately after successful chronic total occlusion PCI was 0.82±0.10 and significantly increased to 0.89±0.07 at 4 months (P <0.001). The FFR increased in 77% of the patients with a mean absolute increase of 0.07±0.08. The incidence of FFR ≤0.80 immediately after PCI was significantly higher amongst patients with subintimal versus intraplaque recanalization (23% versus 12%; P =0.03). At 4 months, FFR ≤0.80 was found only in 2 patients with subintimal recanalization. At follow-up, 42.7% of the patients continued to have an FFR <0.90. Conclusions: Post chronic total occlusion PCI, FFR increased significantly at short-term follow-up compared with measurements post index procedure. Because FFR remained <0.90 in many cases, further efforts should be made to optimize procedural results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To define "best possible" outcomes for secondary bariatric surgery (BS)., Background: Management of poor response and of long-term complications after BS is complex and under-investigated. Indications and types of reoperations vary widely and postoperative complication rates are higher compared to primary BS., Methods: Out of 44,884 BS performed in 18 high-volume centers from 4 continents between 06/2013-05/2019, 5,349 (12%) secondary BS cases were identified. Twenty-one outcome benchmarks were established in low-risk patients, defined as the 75th percentile of the median outcome values of centers. Benchmark cases had no previous laparotomy, diabetes, sleep apnea, cardiopathy, renal insufficiency, inflammatory bowel disease, immunosuppression, thromboembolic events, BMI> 50 kg/m2 or age> 65 years., Results: The benchmark cohort included 3143 cases, mainly females (85%), aged 43.8 ± 10 years, 8.4 ± 5.3 years after primary BS, with a BMI 35.2 ± 7 kg/m2. Main indications were insufficient weight loss (43%) and gastro-esophageal reflux disease/dysphagia (25%). 90-days postoperatively, 14.6% of benchmark patients presented ≥1 complication, mortality was 0.06% (n = 2). Significantly higher morbidity was observed in non-benchmark cases (OR 1.37) and after conversional/reversal or revisional procedures with gastrointestinal suture/stapling (OR 1.84). Benchmark cutoffs for conversional BS were ≤4.5% re-intervention, ≤8.3% re-operation 90-days postoperatively. At 2-years (IQR 1-3) 15.6% of benchmark patients required a reoperation., Conclusion: Secondary BS is safe, although postoperative morbidity exceeds the established benchmarks for primary BS. The excess morbidity is due to an increased risk of gastrointestinal leakage and higher need for intensive care. The considerable rate of tertiary BS warrants expertise and future research to optimize the management of non-success after BS., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Statement: Prof. Peterli reports consulting fees from Johnson & Johnson, outside the submitted work. Prof. Bueter reports personal fees from Johnson & Johnson and Medtronic, outside the submitted work. Prof. Himpens reports personal fees from Ethicon, personal fees from Medtronic, outside the submitted work. Dr. Dillemans reports consulting fees from Medtronic and Johnson & Johnson, outside the submitted work. Prof. Lannoo reports an unrestricted grant from Medtronic. The other authors have no commercial associations to disclose., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To review the current state of simulation use in surgery and to offer direction for future research and implementation of evidence-based findings., Background: Simulation-based training (SBT) in surgery has surged in recent years. Although several new simulators and curricula have become available, their optimization and implementation into surgical training has been lagging., Methods: Members of the Association for Surgical Education Simulation Committee with expertise in surgical simulation review and interpret the literature and describe the current status of the use of simulation in surgery, identify the challenges to its widespread adoption, and offer potential solutions to these challenges. The review focuses on simulation research and implementation of existing knowledge and explores possible future directions for the field., Results: Skill acquired on simulators has repeatedly and consistently been demonstrated to transfer to the operating room, and proficiency-based training maximizes this benefit. Several simulation-based curricula have been developed by national organizations to support resident training, but their implementation is lagging because of inadequate human resources, difficult integration of SBT into educational strategy, and logistical barriers. In research, lack of coordinated effort, flaws in study design, changes in simulator-validation concepts, limited attention to skill retention, and other areas are in need of improvement., Conclusions: Future research in surgical simulation should focus on demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of SBT and its impact on patient outcomes. Furthermore, to enable the more widespread incorporation of best practices and existing simulation curricula in surgery, effective implementation strategies need to be developed.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of a simulation-based curriculum for ward-based care on ward round (WR) performance., Background: Variability in surgical outcomes does not relate to surgical skill alone. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of peri- and postoperative morbidity are dependent on provision of high-quality ward-based care. The focal point of this is the surgical WR. Although WR conduct is learned primarily through experience, a simulated environment and validated assessment tools may enable measurement and enhancement of WR quality., Methods: Junior surgical residents were randomized either to a half-day educational intervention with lectures, structured feedback, and debriefing, or to standard practice (control). All conducted a standardized, validated, simulated WR of 3 patients. Surgical Ward Care Assessment Tool and W-NOTECHS rating scales were used for technical and nontechnical skills assessment, respectively, and compared between groups. Subjects completed pre- and posttest confidence questionnaires and feedback forms., Results: Twenty-nine trainees were randomized to intervention (n = 14) or control (n = 15). Baseline confidence and demographics were equal between groups. Intervention group demonstrated better patient assessment: 63.5 ± 8.1% (control) versus 79.8 ± 11.9% (P = 0.002), management 56.0% ± 19.7% versus 72.2 ± 10.3% (P = 0.014), and nontechnical skills: W-NOTECHS 17.75 ± 2.06 versus 23.33 ± 1.21 (P < 0.001). Hundred percent of subjects felt that the curriculum improved their practice., Conclusions: Conducting WRs is a crucial skill but not currently subject to formal training. Implementation of a comprehensive curriculum for surgical WRs led to significant improvement in quality of patient assessment, management, and nontechnical skills. Improved WR performance may lead to earlier identification and amelioration of complications and improve patient outcomes.

Objective: To determine how minimally invasive surgical learning curves are assessed and define an ideal framework for this assessment., Background: Learning curves have implications for training and adoption of new procedures and devices. In 2000, a review of the learning curve literature was done by Ramsay et al and it called for improved reporting and statistical evaluation of learning curves. Since then, a body of literature is emerging on learning curves but the presentation and analysis vary., Methods: A systematic search was performed of MEDLINE, EMBASE, ISI Web of Science, ERIC, and the Cochrane Library from 1985 to August 2012. The inclusion criteria are minimally invasive abdominal surgery formally analyzing the learning curve and English language. 592 (11.1%) of the identified studies met the selection criteria., Results: Time is the most commonly used proxy for the learning curve (508, 86%). Intraoperative outcomes were used in 316 (53%) of the articles, postoperative outcomes in 306 (52%), technical skills in 102 (17%), and patient-oriented outcomes in 38 (6%) articles. Over time, there was evidence of an increase in the relative amount of laparoscopic and robotic studies (P < 0.001) without statistical evidence of a change in the complexity of analysis (P = 0.121)., Conclusions: Assessment of learning curves is needed to inform surgical training and evaluate new clinical procedures. An ideal analysis would account for the degree of complexity of individual cases and the inherent differences between surgeons. There is no single proxy that best represents the success of surgery, and hence multiple outcomes should be collected.

Objective: To assess the feasibility of developing a simulated ward environment in which to assess the ward-based care of surgical patients by clinicians of varying levels of experience (construct validation)., Background: Increasing evidence points to the importance of the postoperative or ward-based phase of surgical care in determining patient outcomes. Ward-based care is determined by the clinician ward round, with the simulated ward environment potentially providing a safe environment for training and assessment., Methods: A high-fidelity surgical ward environment was developed. Junior and senior trainees conducted ward rounds of 3 standardized surgical patients and were assessed using a checklist of assessment and management care processes, modified NOTECHS score, and fidelity questionnaire., Results: Nine senior and 9 junior trainees were observed. There was no significant difference in time taken to conduct the round (37.6 ± 2.7 vs 32.6 ± 1.9 minutes, P = 0.16). Senior trainees performed significantly more assessment processes (73% ± 2.8% vs 63% ± 2.5%, P = 0.016) and completed more management tasks (73% ± 4.5% vs 59.4% ± 5%, P = 0.058). Fifteen adverse events were committed by junior trainees versus 8 by seniors (P < 0.001). Seniors scored higher on nontechnical ability (NOTECHS score 21.8 ± 0.61 vs 18.1 ± 1.12, P = 0.017). All of subjects felt the ward, patients, and scenarios were realistic., Conclusions: A high-fidelity, immersive, construct-valid ward simulator has been developed in which to observe and assess ward-based processes of surgical care.

Objective: To investigate the relationship between variability in surgical ward round (WR) quality and clinical outcomes., Background: Evidence increasingly suggests that ward-based care plays a key role in surgical outcomes. The WR is the focal point of surgical inpatient care. Assimilating various sources of clinical information is necessary for thorough patient assessment during the WR; whether this relates to outcomes has not previously been examined., Methods: WRs were observed for patients on a surgical high-dependency unit in a tertiary academic surgical unit. All sources of clinical information (SCI) were considered. Thoroughness of assessment, defined as the percentage of SCI assessed by the clinician, was recorded as a marker of WR quality. Complications were recorded from patient records; preventability was based on Agency for Healthcare and Research Quality guidelines. The relationship between WR quality and incidence of preventable complications was analyzed., Results: Sixty-nine WRs were observed over 37 days for 50 patients receiving care in the high-dependency unit. Observed morbidity rate was 60% (30/50). Seventy-four percent of all complications (35/46) occurred on the high-dependency unit. There was significant variability in WR quality: clinicians assessed 9% to 91% (mean = 55% ± 17%) of SCI (analysis of variance P = 0.025). Low-quality (% SCI assessed less than the mean) WRs resulted in a greater incidence of patients experiencing preventable complications [83% (10/12) vs 39% (7/18)] (P = 0.034), odds ratio = 6.43 (95% confidence interval = 1.05-39.3). Forty-one percent of complications (19/46) could have been diagnosed earlier or possibly prevented., Conclusions: Patient assessment during WRs is variable. Less thorough WRs result in delayed diagnoses and preventable complications, and they negatively affect outcomes. Focusing on WR quality and training may improve patient care.

Objectives: The development of a structured virtual reality (VR) training curriculum for colonoscopy using high-fidelity simulation., Background: Colonoscopy requires detailed knowledge and technical skill. Changes to working practices in recent times have reduced the availability of traditional training opportunities. Much might, therefore, be achieved by applying novel technologies such as VR simulation to colonoscopy. Scientifically developed device-specific curricula aim to maximize the yield of laboratory-based training by focusing on validated modules and linking progression to the attainment of benchmarked proficiency criteria., Methods: Fifty participants comprised of 30 novices (<10 colonoscopies), 10 intermediates (100 to 500 colonoscopies), and 10 experienced (>500 colonoscopies) colonoscopists were recruited to participate. Surrogates of proficiency, such as number of procedures undertaken, determined prospective allocation to 1 of 3 groups (novice, intermediate, and experienced). Construct validity and learning value (comparison between groups and within groups respectively) for each task and metric on the chosen simulator model determined suitability for inclusion in the curriculum., Results: Eight tasks in possession of construct validity and significant learning curves were included in the curriculum: 3 abstract tasks, 4 part-procedural tasks, and 1 procedural task. The whole-procedure task was valid for 11 metrics including the following: "time taken to complete the task" (1238, 343, and 293 s; P < 0.001) and "insertion length with embedded tip" (23.8, 3.6, and 4.9 cm; P = 0.005). Learning curves consistently plateaued at or beyond the ninth attempt. Valid metrics were used to define benchmarks, derived from the performance of the experienced cohort, for each included task., Conclusions: A comprehensive, stratified, benchmarked, whole-procedure curriculum has been developed for a modern high-fidelity VR colonoscopy simulator.

Objective: To systematically examine the association between annual hospital and surgeon case volume and patient outcomes in bariatric surgery., Background: Bariatric surgery remains a technically demanding field with significant risk for morbidity and mortality. To mitigate this risk, minimum annual hospital and surgeon case volume requirements are being set and certain hospitals are being designated as "Bariatric Surgery Centers of Excellence." The effects of these interventions on patient outcomes remain unclear., Methods: A comprehensive systematic review on volume-outcome association in bariatric surgery was conducted by searching MEDLINE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Evidence Based Medicine Reviews databases. Abstracts of identified articles were reviewed and pertinent full-text versions were retrieved. Manual search of bibliographies was performed and relevant studies were retrieved. Methodological quality assessment and data extraction were completed in a systematic fashion. Pooling of results was not feasible due to the heterogeneity of the studies. A qualitative summary of results is presented., Results: From a total of 2928 unique citations, 24 studies involving a total of 458,032 patients were selected for review. Two studies were prospective cohorts (level of evidence [LOE] 1), 3 were retrospective cohorts (LOE 3), 2 were retrospective case controls (LOE 3), and 17 were retrospective case series (LOE 4). The overall methodological quality of the reviewed studies was fair. A positive association between annual surgeon volume and patient outcomes was reported in 11 of 13 studies. A positive association between annual hospital volume and patient outcomes was reported in 14 of 17 studies., Conclusions: There is strong evidence of improved patient outcomes in the hands of high-volume surgeons and high-volume centers. This study supports the concept of "Bariatric Surgery Center of Excellence" accreditation; however, future research into the quality of care characteristics of successful bariatric programs is recommended. Understanding the characteristics of high-volume surgeons, which lead to improved patient outcomes, also requires further investigation.

Introduction: Patient-specific simulated rehearsal (PsR) of a carotid artery stenting procedure (CAS) enables the interventionalist to rehearse the case before performing the procedure on the actual patient by incorporating patient-specific computed tomographic data into the simulation software. This study aimed to evaluate whether PsR of a CAS procedure can enhance the operative performance versus a virtual reality (VR) generic CAS warm-up procedure or no preparation at all., Methods: During a 10-session cognitive/technical VR course, medical residents were trained in CAS. Thereafter, in a randomized crossover study, each participant performed a patient-specific CAS case 3 times on the simulator, preceded by 3 different tasks: a PsR, a generic case, or no preparation. Technical performances were assessed using simulator-based metrics and expert-based ratings., Results: Twenty medical residents (surgery, cardiology, radiology) were recruited. Training plateaus were observed after 10 sessions for all participants. Performances were significantly better after PsR than after a generic warm-up or no warm-up for total procedure time (16.3 ± 0.6 vs 19.7 ± 1.0 vs 20.9 ± 1.1 minutes, P = 0.001) and fluoroscopy time (9.3 ± 0.1 vs 11.2 ± 0.6 vs 11.2 ± 0.5 minutes, P = 0.022) but did not influence contrast volume or number of roadmaps used during the "real" case. PsR significantly improved the quality of performance as measured by the expert-based ratings (scores 28 vs 25 vs 25, P = 0.020)., Conclusions: Patient-specific simulated rehearsal of a CAS procedure significantly improves operative performance, compared to a generic VR warm-up or no warm-up. This technology requires further investigation with respect to improved outcomes on patients in the clinical setting.

Objective: To compare the effectiveness and cost of 2 ex vivo training curricula for laparoscopic suturing., Background: Although simulators have been developed to teach laparoscopic suturing, a barrier to their wide implementation in training programs is a lack of knowledge regarding their relative training benefit and their associated cost., Method: This prospective single-blinded randomized trial allocated 24 surgical residents to train to proficiency using either a virtual reality (VR) simulator or box trainer. All residents then placed intracorporeal laparoscopic stitches during a Nissen fundoplication on a patient. The operating room (OR) cases were video-recorded and technical proficiency was assessed using 2 validated tools. OR performance of both groups was compared to that of conventionally trained residents and to fellowship-trained surgeons. A cost analysis of box training, VR training, and conventional residency training across Canadian surgical programs was performed., Results: After ex vivo training, no significant differences in laparoscopic suturing in the OR were found between the 2 groups with respect to time (P = 0.74)-global rating score (P = 0.65) or checklist score (P = 0.97). It took conventionally trained residents 6 practice attempts in the OR to achieve the technical proficiency of the ex vivo trained groups (P = 0.83). VR training was more efficient than box training (transfer effectiveness ratio of 2.31 vs 1.13). The annual cost of training 5 residents on the FLS trainer box was $11,975.00, on the VR simulator was $77,500.00, and conventional residency training was $17,380.00. Over 5 years, box training was the most cost-effective option for all programs, and VR training was more cost-effective for programs with more 10 residents., Conclusions: Training on either a VR simulator or on a box trainer significantly decreased the learning curve necessary to learn laparoscopic suturing. VR training, however, is the more efficient training modality, whereas box training the more cost-effective option.

Objectives: To investigate the effect of modafinil 200 mg on the performance of a cohort of healthy male doctors after 1 night of supervised sleep deprivation., Summary Background Data: Sleep-deprived and fatigued doctors pose a safety risk to themselves and their patients. Yet, because of the around-the-clock nature of medical practice, doctors frequently care for patients after periods of extended wakefulness or during circadian troughs. Studies suggest that a group of substances may be capable of safely and effectively reversing the effects of fatigue. However, little work has been done to investigate their role within our profession., Methods: We conducted a parallel, double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled study to investigate the effect of pharmacological enhancement on performance doctors. Thirty-nine healthy male resident doctors received either lactose placebo (n = 19) or modafinil 200 mg (n = 20) after 1 night of sleep deprivation. A selection of CANTAB neuropsychological tests was used to assess higher cognitive function. Clinical psychomotor performance was assessed using the Minimally Invasive Surgical Trainer Virtual Reality. Assessments were carried out between 6.00 AM and approximately 8.00 AM., Results: Modafinil improved performance on tests of higher cognitive function; participants in the modafinil group worked more efficiently when solving working memory (F1,38 = 5.24, P = 0.028) and planning (F1,38 = 4.34, P = 0.04) problems, were less-impulsive decision makers (F1,37 = 6.76, P = 0.01), and were more able to flexibly redirect their attention (F1,38 = 4.64, P = 0.038). In contrast, no improvement was seen in tests of clinical psychomotor performance., Conclusions: Our results suggest that fatigued doctors might benefit from pharmacological enhancement in situations that require efficient information processing, flexible thinking, and decision making under time pressure. However, no improvement is likely to be seen in the performance of basic procedural tasks.

Introduction: Virtual reality (VR) simulation provides unique training opportunities. This study evaluates whether the deliberate practice (DP) can be successfully applied to simulated laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) for enhancement of the quality of surgical skills., Methods: Twenty-six inexperienced surgeons underwent a training program for LC on a VR simulator. Trainees were randomly allocated to 1 of 2 specific protocols of 10 sessions comprising a total of 20 LCs. For each session, the control group performed 2 LCs separated by 30 minutes of occupational activities; the DP group were assigned 30 minutes of DP activities in between 2 LCs. Each participant then performed 2 LCs on a cadaveric porcine model. Quantitative parameters were recorded from the simulator and a motion tracking device; qualitative assessment utilized validated rating scales., Results: Twenty-two subjects completed training. Learning curves on the VR simulator were significant for time taken and number of movements in both groups. The DP group was slower from the third LC (1373 vs. 872 seconds, P = 0.022) and utilized more movements from the seventh (942 vs. 701, P = 0.033). Global rating scores improved significantly in both groups over repeated LCs. The DP group revealed higher scores than control from tenth (19.5 vs. 14, P = 0.014) until the twentieth LC (22 vs. 16, P = 0.003). On the porcine model, the DP group also achieved higher global rating scores (25.5 vs. 19.5, P = 0.002)., Conclusions: VR training improved dexterity for both groups, and led to transfer of skill onto a porcine LC model. The DP group achieved higher quality, and demonstrated superior transfer onto real tissues.

Objective: To assess the impact of warm-up on laparoscopic performance in the operating room (OR)., Background: Implementation of simulation-based training into clinical practice remains limited despite evidence to show that the improvement in skills is transferred to the OR. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a short virtual reality warm-up training program on laparoscopic performance in the OP., Methods: Sixteen Laparoscopic Cholecystectomies were performed by 8 surgeons in the OR. Participants were randomized to a group which received a preprocedure warm-up using a virtual reality simulator and no warm-up group. After the initial laparoscopic cholecystectomy all surgeons served as their own controls by performing another procedure with or without preoperative warm-up. All OR procedures were videotaped and assessed by 2 independent observers using the generic OSATS global rating scale (from 7 to 35)., Results: There was significantly better surgical performance on the laparoscopic Cholecystectomy following preoperative warm-up, median 28.5 (range = 18.5-32.0) versus median 19.25 (range = 15-31.5), P = 0.042. The results demonstrated excellent reliability of the assessment tool used (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92)., Conclusion: This study showed a significant beneficial impact of warm-up on laparoscopic performance in the OP. The suggested program is short, easy to perform, and therefore realistic to implement in the daily life in a busy surgical department. This will potentially improve the procedural outcome and contribute to improved patient safety and better utilization of OR resources.

SUMMARY/BACKGROUND: Variations in technical performance in surgery are known to exist but are poorly understood. Gaining an appreciation of these differences may have implications for technical skills training, assessment, and selection. Investigators attempting to correlate technical skill with visuospatial or perceptual tests have failed to identify surrogate markers of surgical aptitude. Evidence from unrelated fields suggests that studying brain function may advance our understanding of disparate technical performance in surgery., Methods: A literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies assessing both motor skills learning and changes in brain function., Results: The brain is dynamic and patterns of activation vary with experience and training, a property referred to as "neuroplasticity." Functional neuroimaging studies of complex nonsurgical skills have demonstrated smaller, more refined neuronal networks in experts compared with novices. Novel unrefined performance places a significant burden on generic areas of attention and control such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). These regions are recruited less as skills are performed with increasing automaticity. Persistent PFC activation has been shown to herald poor bimanual coordination learning in studies involving nonsurgical tasks., Concluding Hypothesis: It is suspected that alterations in brain activation foci accompany a transition through phases of surgical skills learning and that those patterns of activation may vary according to technical ability. Validating this hypothesis is challenging because it requires studying brain function in ambulant subjects performing complex motor skills. In a surgical knot-tying study involving over 60 subjects of varying expertise, PFC activation was identified in novices but not in trained surgeons. Further work should aim to determine whether PFC activation attenuates in the context of learning success in surgery.

Objective: Research evaluating fatigue-induced skills decline has focused on acute sleep deprivation rather than the effects of circadian desynchronization associated with multiple shifts. As a result, the number of consecutive night shifts that residents can safely be on duty without detrimental effects to their technical skills remains unknown. A prospective observational cohort study was conducted to assess the impact of 7 successive night shifts on the technical surgical performance of junior residents., Methods: The interventional strategy included training 21 residents from surgery and allied disciplines on a virtual reality surgical simulator, towards the achievement of preset benchmark scores, followed by 294 technical skills assessments conducted over 1764 manpower night shift hours. Primary outcomes comprised serial technical skills assessments on 2 tasks of a virtual reality surgical simulator. Secondary outcomes included assessments of introspective fatigue, duration of sleep, and prospective recordings of activity (number of "calls" received, steps walked, and patients evaluated)., Results: Maximal deterioration in performance was observed following the first night shift. Residents took significantly longer to complete the first (P = 0.002) and second tasks (P = 0.005) compared with baseline. They also committed significantly greater numbers of errors (P = 0.025) on the first task assessed. Improved performance was observed across subsequent shifts towards baseline levels., Conclusions: Newly acquired technical surgical skills deteriorate maximally after the first night shift, emphasizing the importance of adequate preparation for night rotas. Performance improvements across successive shifts may be due to ongoing learning or adaptation to chronic fatigue. Further research should focus on assessments of both technical procedural skills and cognitive abilities to determine the rotas that best minimize errors and maximize patient safety.

Objective: To determine the feasibility, validity, inter-rater, and intertest reliability of 4 previously published video-based rating scales, for technical skills assessment on a benchmark laparoscopic procedure., Summary Background Data: Assessment of technical skills is crucial to the demonstration and maintenance of competent healthcare practitioners. Traditional assessment methods are prone to subjectivity through a lack of proven validity and reliability., Methods: Nineteen surgeons (6 novice and 13 experienced) performed a median of 2 laparoscopic cholecystectomies each (range 1-5) on 53 patients within 2 Academic Surgical Departments. All patients had a diagnosis of biliary colic. Surgical technical skills were rated posthoc in a blinded manner by 2 experienced observers on 4 video-based rating scales. The different scales used had been developed to assess generic or procedure-specific technical skills in a global manner, or on a procedure-specific checklist., Results: Six of 53 procedures were excluded on the basis of intraoperative difficulty. Of the remaining 47 procedures, 14 were performed by 6 novice surgeons and 33 by the 13 experienced surgeons. There were statistically significant differences between performance of the 2 groups on the generic global rating scale (median 24 vs. 27, P = 0.031), though not on procedural or checklist-based scales. All scales demonstrated inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.58-0.76), though only the global rating scales exhibited intertest reliability (alpha = 0.72)., Conclusions: Video-based technical skills evaluation in the operating room is feasible, valid and reliable. Global rating scales hold promise for summative assessment, though further work is necessary to elucidate the value of procedural rating scales.

Objective: The aim of this study was to compare learning curves for laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) after training on a proficiency based virtual reality (VR) curriculum with that of a traditionally trained group., Summary Background Data: Simulator-based training has been shown to improve technical performance during real laparoscopic procedures, although research to date has not proven the persistence of this effect over subsequent cases., Material and Methods: Twenty novice surgeons underwent baseline laparoscopic skills testing followed by a 1-day didactic training session. Control subjects (n = 10) performed 5 cadaveric porcine LCs each; VR-trained subjects (n = 10) completed a VR training curriculum followed by 3 porcine LCs each. A further 10 experienced laparoscopic surgeons (>100 LCs) performed 2 porcine LCs each to define benchmark levels. Technical skill assessment was by motion analysis and video-based global rating scores (out of 35)., Results: There were no intergroup differences in baseline skill. The first LC revealed significant differences between control and VR groups for time (median 4590 seconds vs. 2165 seconds, P = 0.038), path length (169.2 meters vs. 86.8 meters, P = 0.009), number of movements (2446 vs. 1029, P = 0.009), and video scores (17 vs. 25, P = 0.001). The VR group, although not a control, achieved video and dexterity scores equivalent to expert levels of performance., Conclusions: A proficiency based VR training curriculum shortens the learning curve on real laparoscopic procedures when compared with traditional training methods. This may be a more cost- and time-effective approach, and supports the need for simulator-based practice to be integrated into surgical training programs.

Objective: To assess the use of a synchronized video-based motion tracking device for objective, instant, and automated assessment of laparoscopic skill in the operating room., Summary Background Data: The assessment of technical skills is fundamental to recognition of proficient surgical practice. It is necessary to demonstrate the validity, reliability, and feasibility of any tool to be applied for objective measurement of performance., Methods: Nineteen subjects, divided into 13 experienced (performed >100 laparoscopic cholecystectomies) and 6 inexperienced (performed <10 LCs) surgeons completed LCs on 53 patients who all had a diagnosis of biliary colic. Each procedure was recorded with the ROVIMAS video-based motion tracking device to provide an objective measure of the surgeon's dexterity. Each video was also rated by 2 experienced observers on a previously validated operative assessment scale., Results: There were significant differences for motion tracking parameters between the 2 groups of surgeons for the Calot triangle dissection part of procedure for time taken (P = 0.002), total path length (P = 0.026), and number of movements (P = 0.005). Both motion tracking and video-based assessment displayed intertest reliability, and there were good correlations between the 2 modes of assessment (r = 0.4 to 0.7, P < 0.01)., Conclusions: An instant, objective, valid, and reliable mode of assessment of laparoscopic performance in the operating room has been defined. This may serve to reduce the time taken for technical skills assessment, and subsequently lead to accurate and efficient audit and credentialing of surgeons for independent practice.

Objective: To develop an evidence-based virtual reality laparoscopic training curriculum for novice laparoscopic surgeons to achieve a proficient level of skill prior to participating in live cases., Summary Background Data: Technical skills for laparoscopic surgery must be acquired within a competency-based curriculum that begins in the surgical skills laboratory. Implementation of this program necessitates the definition of the validity, learning curves and proficiency criteria on the training tool., Methods: The study recruited 40 surgeons, classified into experienced (performed >100 laparoscopic cholecystectomies) or novice groups (<10 laparoscopic cholecystectomies). Ten novices and 10 experienced surgeons were tested on basic tasks, and 11 novices and 9 experienced surgeons on a procedural module for dissection of Calot triangle. Performance of the 2 groups was assessed using time, error, and economy of movement parameters., Results: All basic tasks demonstrated construct validity (Mann-Whitney U test, P < 0.05), and learning curves for novices plateaued at a median of 7 repetitions (Friedman's test, P < 0.05). Expert surgeons demonstrated a learning rate at a median of 2 repetitions (P < 0.05). Performance on the dissection module demonstrated significant differences between experts and novices (P < 0.002); learning curves for novice subjects plateaued at the fourth repetition (P < 0.05). Expert benchmark criteria were defined for validated parameters on each task., Conclusion: A competency-based training curriculum for novice laparoscopic surgeons has been defined. This can serve to ensure that junior trainees have acquired prerequisite levels of skill prior to entering the operating room, and put them directly into practice.