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This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

This paper presents a discussion on the phase-transformation aspects of additively manufactured Alloy 718 during the additive manufacturing (AM) process and subsequent commonly used post-heat treatments. To this end, fundamental theoretical principles, thermodynamic and kinetics modeling, and existing literature data are employed. Two different AM processes, namely, laser-directed energy deposition and electron-beam powder-bed fusion are considered. The general aspects of phase formation during solidification and solid state in Alloy 718 are first examined, followed by a detailed discussion on phase transformations during the two processes and subsequent standard post heat-treatments. The effect of cooling rates, thermal gradients, and thermal cycling on the phase transformation in Alloy 718 during the AM processes are considered. Special attention is given to illustrate how the segregated composition during the solidification could affect the phase transformations in the Alloy 718. The information provided in this study will contribute to a better understanding of the overall process-structure-property relationship in the AM of Alloy 718 718., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development FundEuropean Union (EU); KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a powder bed additive manufacturing process where a powder material is melted selectively in a layer-by-layer approach using an electron beam. EBM has some unique features during the manufacture of components with high-performance superalloys that are commonly used in gas turbines such as Alloy 718. EBM has a high deposition rate due to its high beam energy and speed, comparatively low residual stresses, and limited problems with oxidation. However, due to the layer-by-layer melting approach and high powder bed temperature, the as-built EBM Alloy 718 exhibits a microstructural gradient starting from the top of the sample. In this study, we conducted modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of microstructural development during EBM and the homogenization that occurs during manufacturing with Alloy 718. A multicomponent phase-field modeling approach was combined with transformation kinetic modeling to predict the microstructural gradient and the results were compared with experimental observations. In particular, we investigated the segregation of elements during solidification and the subsequent in situ homogenization heat treatment at the elevated powder bed temperature. The predicted elemental composition was then used for thermodynamic modeling to predict the changes in the continuous cooling transformation and time-temperature transformation diagrams for Alloy 718, which helped to explain the observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the proposed approach can be employed as a valuable tool for understanding processes and for process development, including post-heat treatments. (C) The Author(s) 2019, Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps-och Kompetensutveckling)

A multi-component and multi-phase-field modelling approach, combined with transformation kinetics modelling, was used to model microstructure evolution during laser metal powder directed energy deposition of Alloy 718 and subsequent heat treatments. Experimental temperature measurements were utilised to predict microstructural evolution during successive addition of layers. Segregation of alloying elements as well as formation of Laves and delta phase was specifically modelled. The predicted elemental concentrations were then used in transformation kinetics to estimate changes in Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagrams for Alloy 718. Modelling results showed good agreement with experimentally observed phase evolution within the microstructure. The results indicate that the approach can be a valuable tool, both for improving process understanding and for process development including subsequent heat treatment., Funding Agencies|European Regional Development Fund; KK Foundation (Stiftelsen for Kunskaps- och Kompetensutveckling)