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The historian as biographer must resolve questions that reflect the dual challenge of telling history and telling lives: How does the biographer sort out the individual's role within the larger historical context? How do biographical studies relate to other forms of history? Should historians use different approaches to biography, depending on the cultures of their subjects? What are the appropriate primary sources and techniques that scholars should use in writing biographies in their respective fields? In Writing Biography, six prominent historians address these issues and reflect on their varied experiences and divergent perspectives as biographers. Shirley A. Leckie examines the psychological and personal connections between biographer and subject; R. Keith Schoppa considers the pervasive effect of culture on the recognition of individuality and the presentation of a life; Retha M. Warnicke explores past context and modern cultural biases in writing the biographies of Tudor women; John Milton Cooper Jr. discusses the challenges of writing modern biographies and the interplay of the biographer's own experiences; Nell Irvin Painter looks at the process of reconstructing a life when written documents are scant; and Robert J. Richards investigates the intimate relationship between life experiences and new ideas. Despite their broad range of perspectives, all six scholars agree on two central points: biography and historical analysis are inextricably linked, and biographical studies offer an important tool for analyzing historical questions.

SUPREME Court opinions like Brown v. Board of Education' reveal their consequences and yield their secrets only with the passage of time. The Supreme Court candidly recognized this reality seventeen years after it delivered Brown: "Nothing in our national experience prior to 1955 prepared anyone for dealing with changes and adjustments of the magnitude and complexity encountered since then."2 Fifty years have now elapsed since May 17, 1954, and the passage of time allows us to put perspective into a reexamination of the opinion that launched American society into the desegregation era and became the catalyst for astonishing changes in race relations not only in public education, but throughout American society. In 1954, the Supreme Court came to a fork in the road in its school segregation jurisprudence when Brown became the first case to force the Court to articulate the harm generated by segregation per se.3 Chief Justice Warren defined the primary harm of segregation to be the negative psychological impact on African

C entral to South Africa's democratic transformation have been attempts to understand how and why human rights abuses were committed under apartheid. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) convened Health Sector Hearings in June 1997 to explore how decades of systematic "racial discrimination had shaped South Africa's health services and how the health sector contributed to

(1819,1821), Johanna Schopenhauer's (17661838) first novel, and wrote to his son August: "Es ist gut, sehr gut."' In Kunst und Altertum he describes the style as "sehr anmutig verarbeitet," the descriptions and the plot as "alles [...] nach dem Wirklichen gezeichnet," and the implementation of tragic form as "sehr wohl gelungen" (WA 41: 5-7). Profitable in the marketplace and beloved by its readers, the novel inspired a new genre in German literature, the feminine novel of resignation or "Entsagungsroman."2 Thematically, Gabriele resonates with Goethe's own ruminations about "Entsagung" central to many of his later works (Wahlverwandtschaften, W M. Wanderjahre), and it also corresponds to his expectations of female protagonists: "Epische, halbepische Dichtung verlangt eine Hauptfigur, die bei vorwaltender Thiitigkeit durch den Mann, bei fiberwiegendem Leiden durch die Frau vorgestellt wird" (WA 41: 5). Indeed, Gabriele, considered to be a paradigmatic novel of feminine resignation, seems to endorse the most traditional views of women and patriarchy because the idealized heroine submits, sacrifices, and suffers all for the sake of duty. Yet, despite Goethe's plaudits for the novel, his praise of Gabriele's moral character and her seeming conformity to the societal expectations of women, he nevertheless cautions against using the novel as an educational model for young women. He writes: Eine sorgsame Mutter [fragte]: ob sie dieses Buch mit ihren Tbchtern lesen k6nne? Dabei kam Folgendes zur Sprache: Erziehung heiBt: die Jugend an die Bedingungen gewbhnen, zu den Bedingungen bilden, unter denen man in der Welt uberhaupt, sodann aber in besondern Kreisen existiren kann. Der Roman hingegen stellt das Unbedingte als das interessanteste vor, gerade das griinzenlose Streben, was uns aus der menschlichen Gesellschaft, was uns aus der Welt treibt, unbedingte Leidenschaft; fiir die dann bei untibersteiglichen Hindernissen nur Befriedigung im Verzweifeln bleibt, Ruhe nur im Tod. Dieser eigenthiimliche Charakter des tragischen Romans ist der Verfasserin sehr wohl gelungen. (WA 41.2, 7)

Gloria Fuertes is considered a leader in contemporary peninsular poetry, and yet a clear under- standing of her poetics and of her uniqueness has not been achieved. Her distinctive poetics and persona are here considered in the context of her relationship to the peninsular poets of her generation and the public that she creates. The form of her poems suggests that Gloria Fuertes transforms our perception of poetry by demystifying the poet and by degentrifying poetic language. Her poems typically are of a dual nature, a simple narration which, at the same time, presents a literary topos in a new light. Fuertes creates a new poetics by substituting each of the elements of the poetic discourse, the text, the poet, and the reader. She replaces them with her own popularized versions, thus creating a powerful poetic style that answers the quest of her genera- tion for a new aesthetics of poetry.

"The Collected Poems" of the distinguished poet Thomas Kinsella contains virtually all his own poems, written over the past 40 years. The early books, of the 1950s and 1960s, include occasional poems, lyrics, and historical and political sequences. Then follow poems of local and family settings, with a growing mythical and allegorical element. Later comes a more public poetry ("Butcher's Dozen", for instance, on the Bloody Sunday shootings in Derry in 1972.) Thomas Kinsella is also well-known for his translations from Irish literature, such as "The Tain" and he has made a continuing, and often controversial, study of Ireland's dual tradition in English and Irish literature.

This article examines accounts of cross-sex reincarnation among the Dene Tha of Northern Alberta, Canada, and shows how the Dene Tha constitute dual gender identities through processes of dream interpretation and socialization. In doing so, the article challenges recent claims that the status of'berdache' exists among Northern Athapaskans, and illustrates the danger of applying anthropological concepts to Northern Athapaskan social practices without adequate consideration of indigenous ideas and social contexts.

The authorship of Honglou meng is one of the most disputed topics in the study of traditional Chinese literature. While most scholars and critics agree that the first eighty chapters of the 120-chapter novel were written by Cao Xueqin, they hold varying opinions regarding the authorship of the last forty chapters: some think it was written by Cao himself, others consider it the work of another hand. Careful examination of the interrogatives used in the novel, however, reveals a marked difference between the first eighty chapters and the last forty. This discrepancy in distribution of interrogative particles and syntactic structures, along with the fact that in the first eighty chapters alone do we find grammatical evidence of Old Mandarin and of Cao Xueqin's native Nanjing dialect, strongly supports the theory that Honglou meng is a work of dual authorship.

This is a reassessment of the moral and theological foundations of modern Europe. It challenges a number of deeply rooted assumptions about the basis of both Scottish culture and of Enlightenments in general. It argues that the formidable dual influences of humanism and Calvinism forced a discussion about the essentially moral function of scholarship and learning to the very centre of intellectual debate in early modern Scotland, and that this in turn led to the growth of an "enlightened" community amongst the Scottish literati. As such, the text is a direct challenge to conventional accounts of the Scottish Enlightenment as an unanticipated, short-lived explosion of ideas.

Edward M. Cook - Stanislav Segert: An Appreciation Pierre Bordreuil - A Propos de Milkou, Milkart et Milk 'ashtart Giorgio Buccellatti - Cybernetica Mesopotamica Randall Buth - 'EDAYIN/TOTE-Anatomy of a Semitism in Jewish Greek Henri Cazelles - Sur 'mdl' a Ugarit, en Is 40,15 et Hab 3,4 Edward M. Cook - The Orthography of Final Unstressed Long Vowels in Old and Imperial Aramaic James R. Davila - Qoheleth and Northern Hebrew M. Dietrich and O. Loretz, tr. Richard White - The Syntax of Omens in Ugaritic Pelio Fronzaroli, tr. Matthew L. Jaffe - Forms of the Dual in the Texts of Ebla Paul W. Gaebelein, Jr. - Psalm 34 and Other Biblical Acrostics: Evidence from the Aleppo Codex Stanley Gevirtz - Phoenician 'wsbrt mlsm' and Job 33:23 Jonas C. Greenfield - The 'Cluster' in Biblical Poetry Douglas M. Gropp - The Language of the Samaria Papyri: A Preliminary Study William Sanford Lasor - Proto-Semitic: Is the Concept No Longer Acceptable? Loren R. Mack-Fisher - From Ugarit to Gades: Mediterranean Veterinary Medicine Rudolf Macuch - Some Orthographico-Phonetic Problems of Ancient Aramaic and the Living Aramaic Pronunciation Dennis Pardee - Structure and Meaning in Hebrew Poetry: The Example of Psalm 23 Robert J. Ratner - Jonah, The Runaway Servant Helmer Ringgren - Some Observations on the Text of Psalms Yona Sabar - On the Nature of the Oral Translations of the Book of Exodus in the Neo-Aramaic Dialect of the Jews of Zakho John H. Sailhamer - A Database Approach to the Analysis of Hebrew Narrative Ziony Zevit - Phoenician 'nbs / nps' and its Hebrew Semantic Equivalents Bibliography of the Writings of Stanislav Segert

Introduction - Suzan Lewis Dual-Earner Families in Context PART ONE: INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES Culture, Policy, and Women in Dual-Earner Families in Israel - Dafna N Izraeli Middle-Class Dual-Earner Families and Their Support Systems in Urban India - Uma Sekaran Dual-Earner Families in Singapore - Edith C Yuen and Vivien Lim Issues and Challenges Sweden's Sex-Role Scheme and Commitment to Gender Equality - Karin Sandqvist Dual-Earner Families in Hungary - Christine Clason Past, Present and Future Perspectives PART TWO: IN THE FAMILY British Households after Maternity Leave - Julia Brannen and Peter Moss Financial Affairs - Rosanna Hertz Money and Authority in Dual-Earner Marriage Dual-Earner Families in the United States and Adolescent Development - Lucia Albino Gilbert and L Suzanne Dancer Dual-Earner Families and the Care of the Elderly in Japan - Jeanette Taudin Chabot PART THREE: WORK AND THE FAMILY: IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY Beyond 1992 - Helen M Hootsmans Dutch and British Corporations and the Challenge of Dual-Career Couples Can Work Requirements Accommodate to the Needs of Dual-Earner Families? - Alice H Cook Towards Balanced Lives and Gender Equality - Suzan Lewis, Dafna N Izraeli and Helen M Hootsmans

Modern scholars have stressed Venice's artistic and cultural ties to Byzantium, as represented by the imitation and appropriation of Byzantine works - a process that appears to have been at its height in the thirteenth century. Or, alternatively, scholars have emphasized Venice's connection to the West, to ideas of ancient lineage and classical antique style as inspired by Rome - a process generally seen as coming to the fore in the fifteenth century. This article sets out to trace the coexistence of both traditions. Though awareness of this dual heritage developed already in the early thirteenth century, it was in the following century, with the expanasion onto the mainland, that it was consciously cultivated in order to give Venice a distinct identity setting it apart from other Italian city-states. The key figure was the scholar-doge Andrea Dandolo (1343-54), who used San Marco to express artistic statements that would project the East-West message. By the time of the sixteenth-century theorists, such as Gasparo Contarini, the concept was firmly rooted in the Venetian vision.

I thank Laura Kalman and Stephen Kaufman for their guidance during the course of this project. I also thank Robert Hetzron, Douglas Johnson, Shelomo Morag, and Richard Steiner. The following symbols and abbreviations will be used: mater lectionis (substituting for y when the vowel is [mid-] high and nonlabial; for w when the vowel is [mid-] high and labial; and for '/h when the vowel is nonhigh). In Onqelos, use of matres lectionis in final position is regular. contracted vowel (except in attested forms, where A signifies a mater lectionis) alternating with $ syllable boundary # word boundary BBH Babylonian Biblical Hebrew BTA Babylonian Talmud Aramaic TBA Tiberian Biblical Aramaic TBH Tiberian Biblical Hebrew For the purposes of this paper, when plene and defective spellings cooccur, the plene has been selected to represent both classes. Forms are cited as attested in the texts. When the attested form appears with a clitic, the clitic will be marked off by parentheses, as in (a)sge. for example, Syriac bnaykY and bnayn, respectively.4 It occurs in dual nouns, as mtaan '200'; cf. Syriac mate'n and TBA m.?tayin (Ezra 6:17).5 a appears in the abs. ms. pl. participle of final weak roots, as bfan '(you) want' (Exod 10:1 1); cf. Syriac bd'n and TBA b.cayin '(they) sought' (Dan 6:5). *ay is also replaced by a in

TN The Awakening, Kate Chopin called Edna's dual life the I "outward existence which conforms, the inward life which questions."1 Two contemporary interviews that I have found in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch suggest that while Chopin claimed outwardly that she had no serious ambitions or thoughts, she was inwardly questioning the nature of love and the significance of suicide while she wrote The Awakening. In her lifetime, Chopin was best known as the author of charming Louisiana stories, especially those in her first collection, Bayou Folk (I894). Two personality profiles that year, by her friends Sue V. Moore and William Schuyler, told readers about her St. Louis antecedents, her years of marriage and motherhood in Louisiana, and her embarking on a literary career after the death of her husband. According to Moore, Chopin was "the exact opposite of a bluestocking," with "no literary affectations" and no "'fads' or 'serious purpose' in life." According to Schuyler, Chopin was a spontaneous writer who often produced a story in one sitting, and "then, after a little, copies it out carefully, seldom making corrections. She never retouches after that."2

The avant-garde movements in East-Central Europe were influenced not only by the cultural centers of Western and Eastern Europe—Paris, Berlin, The Hague, Milan, and Moscow—but also, and profoundly, by their respective cultural traditions. This is especially true for the various Czech avant-garde groups, whose art was as much a response to their nation's own history as it was a rejoinder to progressive artistic developments elsewhere in Europe. The present article seeks to survey the Czech avant-garde in this dual context, and thus will touch on issues that have yet to be fully understood and assessed.

The single tree is an appropriate image to describe the early poetry of Paul Muldoon. The body of work up to and including Quoof (1983) represents an organic whole composed of distinct parts, or "branches.** Muldoon's poetry is characterised by stylistic and contextual idiosyncrasies, and his attitude to specifically Irish concerns sets him apart from his contemporaries. Like Joyce, he is at once regional and international, containing personal, Irish and global issues in a single frame. His calculated deployment of metaphor and parable makes his world relevant to an Irish as well as a non-Irish audience.

In Canada there is settling into shape a nation of two races; there is springing into existence, at the same time, a literature in two languages . . . . In this dual character of the Canadian people and the Canadian literature there is afforded a series of problems which the future will be taxed to solve. (C. G. D. Roberts, 'Introduction' to his translation, Canadians of Old (I890), of Philippe Aubert de Gasp6's Les Anciens Canadiens (1863))

W 7HEN he took up his pen sometime in early 1691 on V V behalf of his hometown of Fairfield, Major Nathan Gold had already served for over thirty years as a magistrate or assistant in Connecticut's general assembly, the General Court. He had also been elected townsman sixteen of the previous twenty-nine years as well as town recorder. Gold, then, was a man of recognized stature and influence both in the town of Fairfield and in the Colony of Connecticut, and his role in Fairfield's difference with the General Court in 1691 added legitimacy to the town's position. The issue between town and colony concerned a certain group of planters who lived near Golden Hill, astride the Fairfield-Stratford boundary line. Those individuals located on Fairfield's side of the line had recently requested authorization from the General Court to support their own minister rather than continue to pay taxes toward the maintenance of Fairfield's. The self-conscious development of what was called Pequannock into a self-contained community or village followed a trend common in early New England, one to which the parent town seldom happily or willingly acquiesced. Even less seldom, however, did the parent town react as strongly as Fairfield did in 1691. As far as the Fairfield town meeting was concerned, the fundamental authority, rights, and lawful prerogatives of an incorporated town were under attack by the "Tyrannicall power" of the General Court. Gold stated the matter boldly

N trying to reinvent the American myth to fit female consciousness, the woman writer faces a double task: her work must respond to both the mainstream of native patriarchal literature and to the swelling current of writing-British and American-by and about women.1 This dual artistic legacy creates double richness and a double bind for the contemporary woman writer that few have negotiated with the confidence of Marilynne Robinson in her I980 novel Housekeeping. Just two decades before, Leslie Fiedler had warned that our classic literature is "a literature of horror for boys."2 In forging a bildungsroman about a female protagonist, Robinson brings a new perspective to bear on the dominant American myth about the developing individual freed from social constraints. Her female adventurer emphasizes the motivations and imperatives of the classic quest and offers fresh testimony about the implications of its outcome-a survival strategy often taken for granted. Repudiation of the domestic sphere by her female quester enlarges the central tradition to include women but leaves them still at the crossroads in a materialistic, patriarchal society. Robinson consciously sets her novel against the great texts of the American tradition. She opens Housekeeping, her first book, with a brief sentence that echoes the famous beginning of Moby-Dick-that prime American text about a castaway and survivor with a significant Biblical name: "My name is Ruth. I grew up with my younger sister, Lucille, under the care of my grandmother, Mrs. Sylvia Foster, and when she died, of her

A traditional Afro-American religion in Suriname is described and the impact of Christian missionaries and their teachings on this religion is assessed. There has been little or no African-Christian fusion of ideas, or syncretism, making Winti rather unique among Afro-American religions. Reasons for this lack of syncretism are explored. One important reason or factor that emerges from the present case study is the relative incompatibility between the native belief system and that of the Moravian Church. A variant of Winti,l an Afro-American magical-religious complex that Herskovits (1958) regarded as the most traditional belief system among Blacks in the Western Hemisphere will be discussed as it relates to religious change. A special type of Winti is found among the Matawai, a Maroon society in Suriname, South America.2 Maroon is the collective term given to descendants of escaped Black slaves in the Americas. Better known Afro-American religious such as Candomble (Brazil), Macumba (Brazil), Vodu (Haiti), and Santeria (Cuba) are all examples of dynamic African-Christian merging, leaving the impression that all Black religions in the Americas are syncretic. This paper will correct that impression by providing an exception. Following a description of central aspects of Winti, the impact of Christian missionaries and their teachings will be described and assessed. I will explore the reasons for both the success of Christianity and the tenacity of Winti beliefs since there has been little or no Christian-Winti syncretism, or dynamic merging and integration of belief systems. Instead of syncretism, we find among the Matawais a dual system of religious beliefs, a situation where Christian and Winti beliefs co-exist uneasily and are kept distinct for the most part. Reasons for the lack of syncretism will be offered in the final section.

This article discusses the problem of the "reading gap" as it exists in Israel in the teaching of intermediate-level English to speakers of Hebrew. It is suggested that such procedures as reading aloud, focusing on the teaching of new words, and concentration on literal-type comprehension questions, though valid and necessary elements in foreign language teaching, conflict with the learning strategies required in "reading for meaning." A proposal is outlined for a dual approach to the reading program-"reading for language" coupled with "reading for meaning"and sample items are provided to demonstrate how this approach might be implemented. As a member of the team which plans the course of study in English

L'association entre inegalite, stratification sociale, et dualisme dans les quartiers ou les villages composant les villes d'Amerique centrale (exemples mexicains, guatemalteques et salvadoriens). Le conflit entre Indiens et Ladinos. Les differents types de groupements sociaux de ces quartiers : clans exogames, clans endogames, groupes de parentes, groupes independants de la filiation, associations, reseaux de voisinage, paroisses

The languages of Arhem Land, Australia, form a contiguous block and Sprachbund, despite a sharp genetic boundary. Thus in Ngandi and Ritharngu, which belong to different major genetic divisions, about half the total vocabulary is shared, virtually all because of recent diffusion. 'Core' vocabulary and highly inflected stems (verbs) are among the borrowed items, but linguistic structural factors affect the extent of diffusion. Extensive over-all borrowing is attributed to local demographic and cultural features: small size of ethnolinguistic group, absence of strong tribal organization, and extensive cross-linguistic marriage.* 1. BACKGROUND. In eastern Arnhem Land, along the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria, several ethnolinguistic groups (linguistic 'tribes') were in close contact with each other prior to the recent intrusion of whites. I contend that some of these languages came into contact at a fairly recent time (let us say a thousand years ago), and that lexical diffusion among them has reached a level not reported elsewhere for stable multilingual zones. The plausibility of this claim is increased by my previous documentation (Heath 1978a) of extensive phonological and grammatical diffusion involving the same languages. In addition to structural convergence, involving inherited materials, I showed that direct borrowing of many bound affixes had occurred: noun-class prefix systems, negative suffix, denominative verbalizing suffix, pre-inflectional thematizing verbal suffix, comitative affixes (with nouns and verbs), several case suffixes (ergative-instrumental, genitive-dative, ablative, instrumental), dyadic dual suffix with kin terms, and various others. Before proceeding, I will review the evidence for the genetic relationships posited among the languages. The crucial division is between the Yuulngu group, bottled up in northeastern Arnhem Land, and the so-called 'prefixing' languages which surround the Yuu. group to the south and west. The prefixing languages, or at least those involved in this paper, are a genetic group, but the fine-grained subgrouping has not been worked out. The Yuu. group consists of approximately ten languages; and except for one or two Yuu. offshoots in the west which do not concern us, the group is internally quite homogeneous. That the Yuu. languages are closely related has been obvious on lexical and grammatical grounds to all observers, and some of the 'languages' grade into each other in dialect-chain fashion. Adjoining Yuu. languages are approximately as similar to each other as Spanish to Portuguese, or German to Dutch. The wider genetic connections of the Yuu. languages are not to the adjoining prefixing languages, but rather to languages far to the south-in the southern

THIS ARTICLE is one of a series that began with 'Polysemantic Extensions of Dog and Allied Terms,'" in which was illustrated the tendency to affix canine names to two classes of referents: those that hold and grip and those that pursue. Two other studies are in process: one treating of canine derivatives in the common names of plants; the other, the use of such derivatives in allusion to human beings and human activities. My aim is to amplify, considerably beyond the evidence offered in unabridged dictionaries, evidence of the extraordinary influence the dog has exerted in the many, widely separated areas in which his name has been used-used not merely to name but to praise, condemn, caress, ridicule, or disvalue creatures or things with which it is associated.2 After all, it is man's intervention that has made the genus Canis the most varied on earth, and the dog has, so to speak, reacted in kind in his contribution to the economy of man's language. The beginnings of this dual process go back to the earliest efforts of human beings3 to give names to, and thereby win control over, the essential things in the bewildering universe

ion made of the -n-, the form can be compared with a genitive dual ending in another Indo-European language: Homeric Greek -oiin, Arcadian -oiun (cf. Eduard Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik 1.557 [Munchen, 1939]) must be derived from earlier *-oysun or *-oysu; B -aiswould be the regular reflex of either form.46 The Greek-Tocharian isogloss is highly important, as there is very little to suggest especially close ties between these two languages: *-oysu(n) then has a greater claim to antiquity than the competing form found in Skt. vrkayos or OCS dvoju. The distribution of -oiin in Greek seems to suggest a pronominal origin of the

T t HE Congregational churches of Massachusetts during the provincial and early constitutional periods formed a system that has often been described as an "establishment." The description, while not altogether accurate, is useful if it is understood that the individual congregations were largely autonomous, that they were bound to no articles of faith by the civil authority, and that they formed a system only insofar as they shared a common historical espousal of Calvinist theology and a general acceptance of the Cambridge Platform. Of those factors only the Platform, adopted by the old Bay Colony and continuing a shadowy common-law existence under the provincial government, carried any weight in law, but since it was concerned solely with matters of church polity it was only a subsidiary factor in the maintenance of an establishment.' Whatever official status the churches enjoyed was derived primarily from an actof i692 requiring every town in the province to support by taxation of the inhabitants a system of public worship and an "able, learned orthodox minister" who, after his election at a special town meeting, became "the minister of such town." Town and church did not thereby become identical bodies, but they formed what Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw many years later described as a "dual corporation."3 The church was the ecclesiastical arm of the town, clothed

Enrique Amorim uses the last sentence of El paisano Aguilar as the epigraph of El caballo y su sombra: "Porque ain no ha comenzado el dialogo entre el hombre y la Ilanura."l With these words and with the latter novel the late Uruguayan novelist summarizes a variety of conflicts which persist throughout a quartet of novels commonly tagged the "first cycle." Beginning in 1925 with Tangarupd and continuing with La carreta seven years later, Amorim draws the lines of a battle which is tentatively resolved in El caballo y su sombra (1941). But the roots of the conflict antedate even Amorim's first cycle. Late in the nineteenth century Jos6 Hernandez clearly perceived the dual nature of the conflict, described in Martin Fierro, as a confrontation between man and nature on the one hand and between man and the rural

Almost all known varieties of vernacular Arabic are characterized by a functional and formal split of the old dual morpheme -ayn. It serves as a dual marker when appended to some nouns, as a plural marker with others; the two functions entail morphophonemic, sometimes also phonetic and syntactic, differences. Some of the features studied can be traced back to the ninth century; others are later developments.

In the vast panorama of Latin American literature, there are many talented but lesser known authors who, for various reasons, have not been fully recognized as yet. One of these is Eugenio Cambaceres, an Argentine aristocrat born of a Spanish mother and a French father in the year 1843. The dual characteristics of both lineages are reflected in his work, which fact makes it difficult to pinpoint his position in the literary picture of his epoch, the turbulent decades before the turn of the century.

IN the introduction to his articles on The Literary Introduction of 7apan to Europe,1 Mr. Thomas Baty stresses the importance of the testimony of Wilhelm Kaempfer and adds, citing the Encyclopaedia Britannica, "It is the principal, if not the only source of knowledge for Europeans generally about Japan." And, pursuing this conclusion to extremes, Mr. Baty continues: "Everything else is little more than scraps." We thought it would be interesting to glance at some of these "scraps," especially at some texts of the eighteenth century in France, published in the encyclopaedias which exercised a wide and profound influence on contemporary opinion.2 The examination of these texts has aroused our interest in a comment made by Mr. Baty in his article, on the attestations of foreign chroniclers inJapan on the subject of the dual sovereignty, temporal and spiritual, in that country. This was thought to consist, as regards the first, of the kubosama, the true emperor, and, as regards the second, of a religious ruler, the dairo. Moreover-a curious fact-in each of the great encyclopaedias of the eighteenth century, an article is devoted to the definition and explanation of this concept of dairo, and a comparison between the respective articles shows differences of opinion even to the point of

Scholars have long agreed that the activities and literary production of Alfonso X and his Royal Scriptorium in the thirteenth century comprise an extraordinary contribution to Spanish culture.' Many have labeled the learned king a medieval erudite whose poor performance as a political ruler was more than compensated by his achievements in the realm of poetry, lawmaking, and the sciences.2 Such evaluation is entirely warranted; it fails only in its incompleteness. Even those who have praised Alfonso's accomplishments have frequently done him a historical injustice by implying, perhaps unwittingly, that they exist in some sort of medieval void, with no significant relationship to later periods of history. The fact is that Alfonso bears a dual