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The skeletal and visceral kinematics of lung ventilation of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) was examined using cineradiography, pneumotachometry, and intrapulmonary pressure recording. The respiratory pattern of A. mississippiensis is intermittent and diphasic. The inspiratory lung volume is retained during the non-ventilatory period through closure of the glottis. The aspiration pump of A. mississippiensis consists of multiple components: visceral movement, pubic rotation, gastralial movement, and costosternal movement, which vary independently in their contribution to lung ventilation. Vertebral flexion and extension is also observed, and may be a passive artifact of costal displacement. The amount of craniocaudal visceral movement during lung ventilation is variable, and can produce as much as 60% of the tidal volume. Pubic rotation is not directly coupled to visceral movement and contributes a relatively small percentage of the tidal volume, approximately 4% on average, as does vertebral flexion, which contributes less than 3%. Costosternal movement contributes the remaining majority of tidal volume, generally over 40%. The gastralia stiffen the abdominal wall and likely facilitate unified displacement of the abdominal wall. Tripartite ribs facilitate thoracic movement, allowing substantial excursion of the body wall. A relatively abrupt change in position of the vertebral parapophysis in the anterior thorax results in an increase in lateral rib movement in the posterior half of the thorax. The crocodylian aspiration pump appears to consist of a derived pelvic and diaphragmatic breathing pump combined with a basal costosternal and gastralial aspiration pump., ((c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

In vivo visceral and skeletal kinematics of lung ventilation was examined using cineradiography in two palaeognaths, the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and the Chilean tinamou (Nothoprocta perdicaria), and a basal neognath, the helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris). Upon inspiration, the thorax expands in all dimensions. The vertebral ribs swing forward and upward, thereby increasing the transverse diameter of the trunk. The consistent location of the parapophysis throughout the dorsal vertebral series, ventral and cranial to the diapophysis, ensures a relatively uniform lateral expansion. An increase in the angle between the vertebral and the sternal ribs causes the sternal ribs to push the sternum ventrally. Owing to the greater length of the caudal sternal ribs, the caudal sternal margin is displaced further ventrally than the cranial sternal margin. When observed in lateral view, sternal movement is not linear, but elliptical. The avian thorax is highly constrained in its movement when compared with crocodylians, the other extant archosaur clade. Birds lack a lumbar region and intermediate ribs. Sternal ribs are completely ossified, and have a bicondylar articulation with the sternum. Considering the importance of pressure differences between cranial and caudal air sac complexes for the generation of unidirectional air flow in the avian lung, it is hypothesized that a decrease in the degrees of freedom of movement of the avian trunk skeleton, greater expansion of the ventrocaudal trunk region, and elliptical sternal movement may represent specific adaptations for fine-tuned control over air flow within the complex avian pulmonary system., ((c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)