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Survey response format has been shown to influence norm prevalence (percentage reporting a norm) and the numerical value of the reported norm. This article summarizes an experiment where respondents were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the semi-open response format treatment, respondents (n = 817) “wrote in a number” for an acceptable number of visitor encounters. In the closed format treatment, individuals (n = 826) “circled a number” of acceptable encounters along a range of possible responses. Hypothesis 1 predicted that norm prevalence would be higher for the closed format than the semi-open. Hypothesis 2 predicted that the mean tolerance level would differ in the two treatments. Results supported hypothesis 1. The percent reporting a norm was statistically higher in the closed versus the semi-open treatment. Results failed to support hypothesis 2. The average tolerance levels for the closed and semi-open formats were statistically equivalent.

Recreationists who encounter more people than their normative tolerance for seeing others usually feel more crowded than those encountering fewer than their norm. This research note extends this ob...

We describe the advertisement calls of four species of glassfrogs (Centrolenidae) of the genus Nymphargus, Rulyrana and Centrolene known to occur in the upper Manu National Park, on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Peru. Glassfrogs inhabit a harsh acoustic environment, because they call and reproduce along noisy mountain streams and rivers. We found extensive variation in the structure, temporal and spectral characteristics of the recorded calls. Although sample sizes were small, our data indicate that intraspecific variation is small. Interspecific variation in calls involved temporal as well as spectral traits. We observed two divergent call structures from a hypothetical simple model of the advertisement call. This simple model consists of a well-pulsed and moderate-frequency modulated call, such as the call emitted by N. pluvialis. The two divergent modifications encountered in our study included the further simplification of the call structure, such as the loss of amplitude and frequency m...

This article examines the influence of chronic wasting disease (CWD) on displacement and desertion among hunters of varying degrees of specialization. Data were obtained from surveys (n = 9,567) of...

Video-EEG (VEEG) monitoring is now commonly used in children. When designing a pediatric video-EEG monitoring unit, there are many issues that need to be considered to take full advantage of this technology. Topics such as the physical layout of the VEEG unit, VEEG equipment, networking, staffing, and lines of communication regarding referrals and VEEG interpretation must be considered. Only after careful consideration of these issues, can video-EEG monitoring be successful and provide safe, state of the art clinical care in an efficient manner.

Understanding public attitudes toward wildland fire management policies is important for effectively managing natural resources and communicating with the pubic. Ipsative crystallization is a measure of individual attitude consensus. This article examines the utility of ipsative crystallization (IC) measures in better understanding attitudes toward and support for three wildland fire management policies (let the fire burn, contain the fire, and put the fire out). Data were obtained from a mailed survey of 1269 visitors to three national forests adjacent to large urban areas of the western United States. IC was operationalized as each respondent's standard deviation from repeated measures of policy support across a set of wildland fire scenarios, and ranged from 0 (high crystallization) to 3.21 (low crystallization). Results indicated that between 41% (let the fire burn) and 53% (contain the fire) of the respondents were highly crystallized in their support for wildland fire policies. IC moderated...

Image Capture Technology (ICT), or the capture and editing of photographic images using microcomputers, has been used in a variety of settings to assess social and ecological impacts. This study illustrates the application of this technology in a VHS videotape survey designed to assess visitors' norms for varying numbers of watercraft, sounds from aircraft and motorized boats, and the acceptability of floating outfitting camps. Acceptability ratings for three setting contexts (access areas, attraction sites, and wild places) within Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, British Columbia, were evaluated. Methodologically, use of the videotape survey proved to be a cost effective vehicle in evaluating both sight and sound impacts. More than 75% of the respondents indicated that the images served as useful reminders of their visit and helped them articulate their norms. These normative standards were consistent with other studies conducted in backcountry areas. The implications of this technology for addressing...

Theory predicts that when encounters exceed a visitor's norm for seeing others, crowding will increase. This article examines this relationship using data from 13 different studies ( n = 10,697) that included both high- and low-density study sites, and 12 different activities. Measures of recreation encounters asked respondents to indicate the number of people they remembered seeing in different contexts. Crowding was measured using a 9-point Likert scale. An indicator of the individual's tolerance norm was obtained by asking respondents to specify the highest number of encounters they would tolerate for a given situation. As hypothesized, perceived crowding was significantly higher for individuals indicating more encounters than their norm ( t = 12.70, p < .001). Overall, when the number of encounters was less than the norm, crowding scores averaged 2.02 (i.e., Not at all crowded). When encounters exceeded the norm, respondents felt "Slightly" to "Moderately" crowded with an average score of 4.01. Measur...

Using the cognitive hierarchy as the theoretical foundation, this article examines the predictive influence of individuals' demographic characteristics on environmental value orientations and normative beliefs about national forest management. Data for this investigation were obtained from a random sample of Colorado residents ( n = 960 ). As predicted by theory, a structural equation analysis demonstrated that the biocentric/anthropocentric value orientation continuum predicted respondents' norms toward national forest management, and the value orientation mediated the relationship between the demographic predictors and the normative belief. Individuals who had lived longer in the state and those with more income tended to be more anthropocentric. Females and those with higher education levels, on the other hand, were closer to the biocentric end of the conceptual continuum. Overall, this article provides empirical support for expanding the cognitive hierarchy to include other predictor constructs when a...

Conflict has traditionally been defined in terms of goal interference (interpersonal conflict) where the physical presence of one individual or group interferes with the goals of another individual or group. Recent research has identified social values differences as an alternative explanation for conflict. Social values conflict can occur between users with different beliefs and values, even if there is no contact between them. This article builds on this conceptual distinction by examining social values and interpersonal conflict reported by hikers (n = 210), mountain bikers (n = 163), and those who participate in both activities (n = 400). Data for this article were obtained from onsite surveys. Respondents evaluated unacceptable behaviors associated with hiking and mountain biking. Across all three groups, less conflict was reported for hiking than for mountain biking. To the extent that conflict did exist for hiking, mountain bikers and dual-sport participants were more likely than hikers to report u...

Jacob and Schreyer's (1980) four determinants of recreation conflict, along with a measure of perceived safety, were used to examine both out-group and in-group normative beliefs about unacceptable behaviors reported by skiers and snowboarders. Data were obtained from surveys distributed at five ski resorts in Colorado. Bivariate analyses indicated that skiers reported more unacceptable behaviors by snowboarders than by fellow skiers, and snowboarders also identified more out-group than in-group conflict. The skiers and snowboarders in this sample varied in terms of activity style, resource specificity, mode of experience, lifestyle tolerance, and concerns with safety. Two structural equation models were used to identify which determinants influenced beliefs about unacceptable behavior. Only activity style significantly influenced both out-group and in-group conflict in both the skier and the snowboarder path models. The relative influence of the other predictors varied according to activity (skiing or sn...

This paper describes National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) visitors’ evaluations of the entrance fees paid relative to the NWR visited, the characteristics of their visit, the socio-demographic characteristics of the visitor, and their beliefs about fees and the fee demonstration program. Data for this investigation were obtained from on-site surveys distributed at eight NWRs. The study sites were selected to represent the variety of fee changes implemented by the USFWS in response to the Congressionally mandated fee demonstration program. As the title of this article suggests, across all refuges, 88% of the respondents evaluated the entrance fees they paid as “about right.” This general pattern of findings was observed across six different characteristics of the visit. Individuals who paid varying amounts of fees, who participated in different activities with varying group sizes and histories of previous use, all generally considered the fees to be “about right.” Similar conclusions emerged when the visitors’ fee evaluations were analyzed relative to socio-demographic characteristics (sex, age, education, income). Evaluations of the fees paid, however, were related to respondents’ beliefs about fees and the fee demonstration program. People who understood the rationale for the fee program and thought the fees were necessary to maintain quality services were more likely to evaluate the fees as “about right.”

This article examines the value attitude behavior cognitive hierarchy as it pertains to wildland preservation. Data for this investigation were obtained from a random sample of Colorado residents (n=960). A biocentric/anthropocentric value orientation continuum was developed and examined empirically. Consistent with previous research, confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis suggested that a respondent's value orientation toward wildlands can be positioned along this single continuum. As predicted by theory, a structural equation analysis demonstrated that the biocentric/anthropocentric value orientation continuum predicted a respondent's attitude toward the preservation of wildlands, and that the attitude fully mediated the relationship between value orientation and behavioral intention to vote for wildland preservation. Overall, this article provides empirical support for using the cognitive hierarchy when attempting to understand and predict responses to natural resource issues.

Digit preference (DP) has been recognized by a disproportionate number of responses ending in preferred digits (e.g., 0 or 5). Individuals have been defined as exhibiting DP on a particular variable if their responses end in these preferred digits. Since 20% of all numbers end in 0 or 5, however, this individual‐based definition of DP is biased. In this paper, an alternative aggregate measure of digit preference (ADP0or5) is defined and contrasted with the individual‐based measure (IDP0or5). Data for this presentation were derived from a recent article (Vaske, Beaman, Manfredo, Covey, & Knox, 1996) addressing the influence of response strategy (e.g., record keeping, guessing) and recall frame (short versus long) on digit preference. The aggregate measure of DP shows almost no digit preference (5%) for those who were recalling short time frames and who kept records of their angling participation. The individual‐based measure indicated that 15% of the sample exhibited DP. For the long recall frame ...

Existing normative studies have focused on backcountry encounter norms reported by North Americans. This study compares encounter norms and perceptions of crowding reported by visitors from five different countries of origin—Canada, United States, Japan, Germany, and England—to a frontcountry day‐use recreation area. Data were obtained from random samples of two types of visitors—those riding in “snocoach” tour vehicles (n = 463) and those on the toe of the glacier (n = 375)—at the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Results indicated both similarities and differences among the visitors. In terms of differences, Anglo American respondents were least likely to specify a norm, while the Germans and Japanese were most likely. Among those who reported an encounter norm, however, the average tolerance limit did not vary by country of origin. Few differences were also apparent for perceived crowding levels among the five visitor groups. Irrespective of country of origin, when contacts exceeded t...

The normative approach in natural resource management illustrates the progress that has been made in advancing theory and application in outdoor recreation research. This article integrates findings from a number of different studies to highlight the utility of the normative approach and provide an example of how efforts focused on a particular theoretical approach can enhance the quality of scientific research. Findings from both social and ecological impact studies are examined. Topics include norms for encounters, ecological impacts, aesthetic impacts, and instream flows. A number of considerations for future research are presented, including the definition of norms, norm salience, norm consensus, question construction, and statistics for measuring norms.

The replacement of long-stay hospital services with community-based care can have considerable resource consequences. How much community care costs and whether it is more expensive than hospital care are questions high on the policy and planning agenda. Decision-makers should also be interested in whether levels of expenditure are associated with clients' needs and with changes in their wellbeing. These questions were addressed in a wide-ranging evaluation of community care in N. Ireland. In examining the costs of accommodation and other services used by former residents of nine hospitals (n=133) the study found community care to be cheaper than hospital care. Broadly speaking, the new service was a cost-effective alternative as little change in clients' welfare was found. However, analysis of the variations in community care costs found only weak associations with clients' personal characteristics and needs, and found no link between differential spending and differential outcomes.

A growing segment of the American population now questions decisions made by wildlife managers and demands a voice in the decision‐making process. Public acceptance of wildlife management policies is a key consideration in most wildlife decisions. Recognizing this need for human dimensions research, managers have begun to develop and use expertise that allows them to assess the social component of decisions much as they assess the biological consequences of wildlife decisions. This article builds on the existing human dimensions research by examining the influence of five categories of variables on residents’ reactions to a specific wildlife management proposal. The predictor classes were respondents ‘ personal characteristics, participation in wildlife associated recreation, beliefs about the state's Fish and Game Department, general beliefs about hunting, and specific beliefs about a moose hunt. A random sample of New Hampshire residents was surveyed. Variables from each of the five predictor classes we...

This study empirically examines the theoretical distinction between interpersonal conflict and conflict in social values. Data for this investigation were obtained from surveys of visitors to Mt. Evans, Colorado. Interpersonal conflicts between hunters and nonhunters on Mt. Evans appear to have been minimized due to the mountain's natural visual barriers and the managing agency's regulations that prohibit hunting near the road where most nonhunters are found. To the extent that conflict exists with hunting associated events on Mt. Evans, much of the problem stems from differences in social values held by the hunting and nonhunting publics. Hunters and more frequent visitors experienced more interpersonal conflicts than nonhunters and less frequent visitors for nonhunting human‐wildlife interaction events. Analyses examining the interaction between type of visitor (hunters versus nonhunters) and number of prior visits (first visit, two to four visits, and five or more visits) suggested that confli...

This paper integrates the findings from social and ecological impact studies at three barrier beaches in Massachusetts to demonstrate the value of an inter-disciplinary approach to resource allocation and visitor management. Fragile barrier beaches have a high demand for human recreation, but a low tolerance for human impact. Because barrier beaches also serve as nesting habitat for rare birds (piping plovers and least terns), balancing preservation and recreation requires management plans based on both social and ecological impact studies. The social data were obtained from on-site surveys using self-administered questionnaires. Information regarding visitor behaviors, beliefs and attitudes was collected from three distinct groups : those who parked their car in a parking lot and walked to the beach, those who drove 4-wheel drive vehicles on the beach, and those who landed boats on the beach. The ecological data consisted of dune vegetation and bird surveys in recreation areas and those protected from human impact. Results were used to develop management techniques to mitigate impact and educate visitors.

Previous research has utilized at least two distinct methodological approaches to identify substitutable recreation activities: (1) the activity type method, which constructs typologies of substitutable activities based on similarities in reported participation rates or preference patterns and (2) the direct‐question method of asking individuals to specify their substitutes for a particular activity. The present study compares the theoretical assumptions of and predictions made by each method using a sample of hunters in Maryland. Based on differences in the assumptions and specificity of the two approaches, it was hypothesized that the predicted substitutes would vary. Findings indicate that the approaches result in different predictions about substitute activities and that the activity type method is probably not well‐suited for understanding or predicting the choice of specific activity substitutes. The implications of these findings for resource management and future research are discussed.

This paper theorizes that participants in consumptive and nonconsumptive activities differ in terms of the specificity and clarity of their recreation goals and their control in achieving these goa...

Previous research has suggested that similar recreation activities may be substitutable. This paper compares two approaches that have been used to define the notion of similarity. With the first ap...

This paper extends previous specialization research by using the concept to compare individuals who participate in different boating activities and sub-activities. Analyses were based on a statewid...