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A flexible fiber-coupled confocal laser endomicroscope has been developed using an electrostatic micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) scanner located in at distal optics to collect in vivo images in human subjects. Long transmission lines are required that deliver drive and sense signals with limited bandwidth. Phase shifts have been observed between orthogonal ${X}$ - and ${Y}$ -scanner axes from environmental perturbations, which impede image reconstruction. Image-processing algorithms used for correction depend on image content and quality, while scanner calibration in the clinic can be limited by potential patient exposure to lasers. We demonstrate a capacitive sensing method to track the motion of the electrostatically driven 2-D MEMS scanner and to extract phase information needed for image reconstruction. This circuit uses an amplitude modulation (AM) envelope detection method on shared drive and sensing electrodes of the scanner. Circuit parameters were optimized for performance given high scan frequencies, transmission line effects, and substantial parasitic coupling of drive signal to circuit output. Extraction of phase information further leverages nonlinear dynamics of the MEMS scanner. The sensing circuit was verified by comparing with data from a position sensing detector (PSD) measurement. The phase estimation showed an accuracy of 2.18° and 0.79° in ${X}$ - and ${Y}$ -axes for motion sensing, respectively. The results indicate that the sensing circuit can be implemented with feedback control for precalibration of the scanner in clinical MEMS-based imaging systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article applies image processing metrics to tracking of perturbations in mechanical phase delay in a multiaxis microelectromechanical system scanner. The compact mirror is designed to scan a laser beam in a Lissajous pattern during the collection of endoscopic confocal fluorescence images, but environmental perturbations to the mirror dynamics can lead to image registration errors and blurry images. A binarized, threshold-based blur metric and variance-based sharpness metric are introduced for detecting scanner phase delay. Accuracy of local optima of the metric for identification of phase delay is examined, and relative advantages for processing accuracy and computational complexity are assessed. Image reconstruction is demonstrated using both generic images and sample tissue images, with significant improvement in image quality for tissue imaging. Implications of nonideal Lissajous scan effects on phase detection and image reconstruction are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Point-of-care medical diagnosis demands immediate feedback on tissue pathology. Confocal endomicroscopy can provide real-time in vivo images with histology-like features. The working channel in medical endoscopes are becoming smaller in dimension. Microsystems methods can produce tiny mechanical scanners. We demonstrate a flexible fiber instrument for in vivo imaging as an endoscope accessory. The optical path is folded on-axis to reduce length while allowing the beam to expand and achieve a numerical aperture of 0.41. A high-speed parametric resonance mirror produces large deflection angles > 13°, and is mounted on a 2 mm diameter chip designed with clamp structures for reduced space. A compact lens assembly provides diffraction-limited lateral and axial resolution of 1.5 and $12~\mu \text{m}$ , respectively. A working distance of $50~\mu \text{m}$ and field-of-view of $350\,\,\mu \text{m}\,\,\times 350\,\,\mu $ m are achieved. Miniature apparatus is fabricated to assemble and align the scanhead components. The optics and scanner are packaged in a distal tip with 2.4 mm diameter and 10 mm rigid length. These dimensions allow the endomicroscope to pass forward easily through the 2.8 mm diameter working channel in medical endoscopes commonly used in clinical practice. Fluorescence images are collected in vivo at 10 frames per second in the colon of genetically-engineered mice that spontaneously develop adenomas. A FITC-labeled peptide heterodimer is administered intravenously to provide specific contrast. Sub-cellular structures are visualized to distinguish pre-malignant from normal mucosa. These results demonstrate use of microsystems methods to produce an ultra-compact instrument with sufficiently small dimensions for broad use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we present a method to estimate high-frequency rotary motion of a highly compact electrostatic microscanner using the same electrodes for both actuation and sensing. The accuracy of estimated rotary motion is critical for reducing blur and distortion in image reconstruction applications with the microscanner given its changing dynamics due to perturbations such as temperature. To overcome the limitation that no dedicated sensing electrodes are available in the proposed applications due to size constraints, the method adopts electromechanical amplitude modulation to separate motion signal from parasitic capacitance feedthrough, and a novel nonlinear measurement model is derived to characterize the relationship between large out-of-plane angular motion and circuit output. To estimate motion, an extended Kalman filter and an unscented Kalman filter are implemented, incorporating a process model based on the microscanner's parametric resonant dynamics and the measurement model. Experimental results show that compared to estimation without using the measurement model, our method can improve the rotary motion estimation accuracy of the microscanner significantly, with a reduction of root-mean-square error (RMSE) in phase shift of 86.1%, and a reduction of RMSE in angular position error of 78.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]