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Purpose: During Ramadan month, Muslims often continue training to maintain their muscle performance. However, trainers should stress the importance of the time of day chosen for practicing resistance training (RT) during Ramadan fasting to avoid health and performance alteration. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of the timing of RT during Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) on muscle strength and hypertrophy in healthy male adults. Methods: Forty men were randomly allocated to 2 matched groups: 20 practicing whole-body RT in the late afternoon in a fasted state and 20 training in the late evening in a fed state (FED). Both groups performed 4 days per week of whole-body RT (∼75%–85% 1-repetition maximum, 12 repetitions/3–4 sets) during RIF. Anthropometric measurements and 1-repetition-maximum test for the squats, deadlift, and bench press were measured. A cross-sectional area of the quadriceps and biceps brachii was examined using ultrasound scans. All measurements were taken at 4 time points: 24 hours before the start of Ramadan, on the 15th day of Ramadan, on the 29th day of Ramadan, and 21 days after Ramadan. Results: Post hoc tests indicated significant preimprovement to postimprovement in FED at the 29th day of Ramadan for the 1-repetition-maximum test for the squats (P =.02; effect size = 0.21) and deadlift (P =.03; effect size = 0.24) when compared to 24 hours before the start of Ramadan. No significant changes were observed in the fasted-state group or for cross-sectional area for both groups. Conclusions: Practicing RT during RIF appears not to have adverse effects on muscle hypertrophy and strength no matter whether it is practiced in FED or fasted state. However, RT had greater effects on muscle strength when applied in FED. Our findings suggest that training sessions should be scheduled after breaking the fast during Ramadan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Most women during their lifetime experience a combination of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms (eg, menstrual cramps) before and often to the end of menstruation. However, the impact of these symptoms on sport routines (eg, performance, training absence) during phases around menstruation is still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the impact of PMS symptoms on sport routines among nonelite athletes over 3 phases related to menstruation. Methods: An online questionnaire was developed to recruit nonelite female athletes who participate in summer Olympic sports. Participants were allocated into 2 groups: those who experienced mild to moderate PMS symptoms (no-PMS) and those with severe PMS symptoms (p-PMS). Two hundred thirty-four responses from eumenorrheic women (p-PMS = 78%) were considered valid. An unpaired Student t test was conducted to compare demographic characteristics between groups and chi-square test to evaluate the impact of PMS status on sport routines between groups. Results: A significant (P <.05) proportion of women in the p-PMS group changed their training schedule because of menstrual (55%) and premenstrual (61%) symptoms compared with the no-PMS group. Overall, all participants indicated that training (P =.01) and competitive (P <.01) performance are impacted during menstruation, followed by a greater impact (P <.05) in the p-PMS group before menstruation. Conclusion: The presence of PMS symptoms reduces training and competitive performance, primarily during and before menstruation, respectively. Severity of PMS symptoms was significantly associated with alterations in training schedule but not with competitive schedule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To determine the relationship between gastrointestinal hormones (leptin, glucagon-like peptide-1), ghrelin, cholecystokinin, peptide YY, morphological characteristics, and physical performances in elite soccer players. Methods: Q2 Twenty-two elite male soccer players (age = 23.1 [2.7] y, height = 177.0 [0.1] cm, weight = 70.2 [2.9] kg, body mass index = 22.1 [1.8] kg/m2) completed 3-day food records each week during the 5-week training period. Blood samples were drawn after an overnight fast before and after preseason training to assess gastrointestinal hormones (leptin, glucagon-like peptide-1, ghrelin, cholecystokinin, and peptide YY). Continuous analysis of the training load was used during the training period. Preintervention and postintervention tests assessed jumping (countermovement jump), sprinting (10, 20, and 30 m), and endurance fitness (the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 [YYIRT1]) levels. Results: Preseason training decreased body mass index (P =.001; effect size [ES] = 0.183) and body fat percentage (P =.001; ES = 0.516). There were increases in countermovement jump (P =.032; ES = 0.215), 20- (P =.016; ES = 0.195) and 30-m sprints (P =.001; ES = 0.188), and YYIRT1 performance (P =.001; ES = 0.9). Levels of cholecystokinin, peptide YY, and ghrelin did not change during preseason training, although changes in leptin (P =.001; ES = 0.41) and glucagon-like peptide-1 levels (P =.039; ES = 0.606) were recorded. Leptinemia correlated with anthropometric parameters (body mass index, r =.77, P =.001; percentage of body fat,r =.67, P =.006) and the total distance covered during the YYIRT1 (r = −.54; P =.03). Conclusion: Changes in morphological parameters and physical performance in elite-level male soccer players are related to variations in selected gastrointestinal hormones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout their lifespans, women undergo unique endocrinological changes relative to their reproductive hormones. The influence of how the female sex steroid hormones have nonreproductive actions is a trending topic of great interest in the exercise–sports sciences, especially among women of reproductive age. Herein, we present several key points on our perspective for moving the study of this topic forward in the future. These are (a) encouraging researchers to pursue high-quality research on female physiology–endocrinology in the exercise–sports science setting, (b) the need for exercise–sports science educational curriculums at the university level to embrace the study of female physiology–endocrinology area, and (c) the need for innovation in the study of this topic. As such, we propose using research design models involving supraphysiological hormonal states in vivo, that is, pregnancy and in vitro fertilization treatment, to gain new insights on sex steroid hormonal actions in women. Herein, we provide the rationale for our recommendations as well as a brief physiological overview of these clinical states. We acknowledge, exercise sports sciences need more studies on women! But there is a need to "think outside the box" on this topic, and we encourage researchers to be unconventional, be bold, think creatively, and contemplate whether these supraphysiological hormonal states might give them insightful information on female physiology and ovarian sex steroid hormones actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beta-alanine, caffeine, and nitrate are dietary supplements generally recognized by the sport and exercise science community as evidence-based ergogenic performance aids. Evidence supporting the efficacy of these supplements, however, is greatly skewed due to research being conducted primarily in men. The physiological differences between men and women, most notably in sex hormones and menstrual cycle fluctuations, make generalizing male data to the female athlete inappropriate, and potentially harmful to women. This narrative review outlines the studies conducted in women regarding the efficacy of beta-alanine, caffeine, and nitrate supplementation for performance enhancement. Only nine studies on beta-alanine, 15 on caffeine, and 10 on nitrate in healthy women under the age of 40 years conducted in normoxia conditions were identified as relevant to this research question. Evidence suggests that beta-alanine may lower the rate of perceived exertion and extend training bouts in women, leading to greater functional adaptations. Studies of caffeine in women suggest the physiological responder status and caffeine habituation may contribute to caffeine's efficacy, with a potential plateau in the dose–response relationship of performance enhancement. Nitrate appears to vary in influence based on activity type and primary muscle group examined. However, the results summarized in the limited literature for each of these three supplements provide no consensus on dosage, timing, or efficacy for women. Furthermore, the literature lacks considerations for hormonal status and its role in metabolism. This gap in sex-based knowledge necessitates further research on these ergogenic supplements in women with greater considerations for the effects of hormonal status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To analyze biochemical markers, wellness status, and physical fitness in elite soccer players in relation to changes in training and match exposure during a congested period of match play. Methods: Fourteen elite soccer players were evaluated 3 times (T1, T2, and T3) over 12 weeks (T1–T2: 6-wk regular period of match play and T2–T3: 6-wk congested period of match play). Players performed vertical jump tests, repeated shuttle sprint ability test, and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test at T1, T2, and T3. Plasma C-reactive protein, creatinine, and creatine kinase were analyzed at T1, T2, and T3. Wellness status was measured daily using the Hopper questionnaire (delayed onset of muscle soreness, stress, fatigue, and sleep quality). Training session rating of perceived exertion was also recorded on a daily basis. Results: A significant increase was found in stress, fatigue, delayed onset of muscle soreness scores, and Hopper index during the congested period (between T2 and T3) compared with the regular period (between T1 and T2) (.001 < P <.008, 0.8 < ES < 2.3). Between T2 and T3, significant relationships were found between the percentage variations (Δ%) of C-reactive protein, and Δ% of creatine kinase with the Hopper Index, and the Δ% of fatigue score. In addition, the Δ% of fatigue score and Δ% of delayed onset of muscle soreness score correlated with Δ% Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test and Δ% best of repeated shuttle sprint ability test (.49 < r < P <.01). Conclusions: An intensive period of congested match play significantly compromised elite soccer players' physical fitness and wellness status. Elite soccer players' wellness status reflects declines in physical fitness during this period while biochemical changes do not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To determine body composition, energy availability, training load, and menstrual status in young elite endurance running athletes (ATH) over 1 year, and in a secondary analysis, to investigate how these factors differ between nonrunning controls (CON), and amenorrheic (AME) and eumenorrheic (EUM) ATH. Correlations to injury, illness, and performance were also examined. Methods: Altogether 13 ATH and 8 CON completed the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire. Anthropometric, energy intake, and peak oxygen uptake assessments were made at 4 time points throughout the year: at baseline post competition season, post general preparation, post specific preparation, and post competition season the following year. Logs of physical activity, menstrual cycle, illness, and injury were kept by all participants. Performance was defined using the highest International Association of Athletics Federations points prior to and after the study. Results: ATH had significantly lower body mass (P <.008), fat percentage (P <.001), and body mass index (P <.027) compared with CON, while energy availability did not differ between ATH and CON. The Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire score was higher in ATH than in CON (P <.028), and 8 ATH (vs zero CON) were AME. The AME had significantly more injury days (P <.041) and ran less (P <.046) than EUM, while total annual running distance was positively related to changes in performance in ATH (r <.62, P <.043, n < 11). Conclusions: More than half of this group of runners was AME, and they were injured more and ran less than their EUM counterparts. Furthermore, only the EUM runners increased their performance over the course of the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of acute consumption of L-Arginine (L-Arg) in healthy young individuals are not clearly defined, and no studies on the effects of L-Arg in individuals with abnormal body mass index undertaking strenuous exercise exist. Thus, we examined whether supplementation with L-Arg diminishes cardiopulmonary exercise testing responses, such as ventilation (VE), VE/VCO2, oxygen uptake (VO2), and heart rate, in response to an acute session of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) in overweight men. A double-blind, randomized crossover design was used to study 30 overweight men (age, 26.5 ± 2.2 years; body weight, 88.2 ± 5.3 kilogram; body mass index, 28.0 ± 1.4 kg/m2). Participants first completed a ramped-treadmill exercise protocol to determine VO2max velocity (vVO2max), after which they participated in two sessions of HIIE. Participants were randomly assigned to receive either 6 g of L-Arg or placebo supplements. The HIIE treadmill running protocol consisted of 12 trials, including exercise at 100% of vVO2max for 1 min interspersed with recovery intervals of 40% of vVO2max for 2 min. Measurements of VO2 (ml·kg−1·min−1), VE (L/min), heart rate (beat per min), and VE/VCO2 were obtained. Supplementation with L-Arg significantly decreased all cardiorespiratory responses during HIIE (placebo+HIIE vs. L-Arg+HIIE for each measurement: VE [80.9 ± 4.3 L/min vs. 74.6 ± 3.5 L/min, p <.05, ES = 1.61], VE/VCO2 [26.4 ± 1.3 vs. 24.4 ± 1.0, p <.05, ES = 1.8], VO2 [26.4 ± 0.8 ml·kg−1·min−1 vs. 24.4 ± 0.9 ml·kg−1·min−1, p <.05, ES = 2.2], and heart rate [159.7 ± 6.3 beats/min vs. 155.0 ± 3.7 beats/min, p <.05, d = 0.89]). The authors conclude consuming L-Arg before HIIE can alleviate the excessive physiological strain resulting from HIIE and help to increase exercise tolerance in participants with a higher body mass index who may need to exercise on a regular basis for extended periods to improve their health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is commonly used as a marker of psychological stress; however, it is unknown whether CAR is affected by regular physical-exercise-induced stress. Purpose: To assess the relationship between training load and CAR. Methods: Recreational endurance athletes were recruited from local running clubs. Subjects (n = 15) completed training logs for 2 wk, with various training loads, including psychometric analysis (Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes). Subjects provided saliva samples each day immediately after waking and 30 min postwaking. Samples were analyzed for cortisol concentration via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and subsequently were analyzed for CAR and CAR%. Daily training load was calculated and analyzed as training impulse. Simple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between CAR and training impulse. Results: CAR (r2 =.352, P =.025) and CAR% (r2 =.373, P =.012) both showed a significant negative relationship with training load. Conclusions: These results suggest that CAR is affected by regular exercise training loads in recreational athletes. It is recommended that future CAR research control for fitness level and exercise training load in physically active populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article, the authors discuss how sport-science researchers should deal with the paradox of the increases in the quality and quantity of studies on the effects of sports and exercise on the hormonal profile of female participants and their performances in their sports. Topics include the importance of collecting detailed data on the menstrual cycle history and hormonal contraceptive use of female athletes participating in research.

Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), fractional utilization of V̇O2max during running, and running economy (RE) are crucial factors for running success for all endurance athletes. Although evidence is limited, investigations of these key factors indicate that East Africans' superiority in distance running is largely due to a unique combination of these factors. East African runners appear to have a very high level of RE most likely associated, at least partly, with anthropometric characteristics rather than with any specific metabolic property of the working muscle. That is, evidence suggest that anthropometrics and body composition might have important parameters as determinants of superior performance of East African distance runners. Regrettably, this role is often overlooked and mentioned as a descriptive parameter rather than an explanatory parameter in many research studies. This brief review article provides an overview of the evidence to support the critical role anthropometrics and body composition has on the distance running success of East African athletes. The structural form and shape of these athletes also has a downside, because having very low BMI or body fat increases the risk for relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) conditions in both male and female runners, which can have serious health consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare differences between two different rest interval lengths between sets on the volume completed, muscle damage and muscle soreness during a resistance exercise bout. Methods: Twenty-eight healthy sedentary men ( 18 ± 1 y old) volunteered to participate in this study and were divided into the 1 min ( 1 RI; n = 14) or 3 min (3RI; n = 14) rest interval length between sets. They were submitted to maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength (MVC) and then performed a resistance exercise protocol constituted for three sets of biceps curl at 40% of MVC with I min (1RI group) or 3 min (3RI group) interval length between sets. Each bout was performed to voluntary fatigue and the workout volume completed was calculated. Subjects provided blood samples before each bout, and at 24, and 48 h following exercise to evaluate serum CK activity. Muscle soreness was analyzed through visual analog scale, which was presented to subjects before first bout, immediately after exercise protocol and at 24, and 48 h following exercise. Results: The results demonstrated that the subjects with longer rest intervals provide greater workout volume as expected, but there were no differences in serum CK activity and muscle soreness between groups. Conclusion: Training with high-volume, low-intensity resistance training, exercising with short rest intervals does not appear to present any additional challenge to recovery in untrained subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]