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HIV-1 genetic diversity results into the development of widespread drug-resistant mutations (DRMs) for the first-line retroviral therapy. Nevertheless, few studies have investigated the relationship between DRMs and HIV-1 subtypes among HIV-positive injecting drug users (IDUs). This study therefore determined the association between HIV-1 genotypes and DRMs among the 200 IDUs. Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Database was used to interpret DRMs. The five HIV-1 genotypes circulating among the IDUs were A 1 (25 (53.2%)), A 2 (2 (4.3%)), B (2 (4.3%)), C (9 (19.1%)), and D (9 (19.1%)). The proportions of DRMs were A 1 (12 (52.2%)), A 2 (1 (4.3%)), B (0 (0.0%)), C (5 (21.7%)), and D (5 (21.7%)). Due to the large proportion of drug resistance across all HIV-1 subtypes, surveillance and behavioral studies need to be explored as IDUs may be spreading the drug resistance to the general population. In addition, further characterization of DRMs including all the relevant clinical parameters among the larger population of IDUs is critical for effective drug resistance surveillance., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Gabriel O. Ng'ong'a et al.)

Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a major source of carbohydrates, calcium, vitamins (B and C), and essential minerals and is the third most important source of calories in the tropics. However, it is not clear if the traditional processing methods expose the products to microbial contamination. This study assessed the levels of fungi and aflatoxin contamination in traditionally processed cassava products ( Akuoga and Abeta ). A total of 38 samples were collected from the local markets in 7 subcounties in Homa Bay County, Kenya. The levels of aflatoxin were determined using an indirect competitive ELISA protocol. Yeast and mould contamination was determined using ISO 21527-2 method. Mean aflatoxin levels in chopped, fermented, and sun-dried cassava ( Akuoga) were 0.36  μ g/kg compared to 0.25  μ g/kg in chopped and sun-dried ( Abeta) products. Aflatoxin contamination was detected in 55% of the samples and ranged from 0-5.33  μ g/kg. These levels are within 10  μ g/kg recommended by the CODEX STAN 193-1995. Yeast and mould counts in fermented and chopped sun-dried products were 3.16 log Cfu/g and 2.92 log Cfu/g, respectively. The yeast and mould counts were above standards set by East African Standard 739:2010 in 62% ( Akuoga ) and 58% ( Abeta ). The most prevalent fungal species were Saccharomyces cerevisiae (68.4%) and Candida rugosa (68%) followed by Candida parapsilosis (18.4%), Candida tropicalis (15.8%) , Candida humilis (15.8%), and Aspergillus spp. (5.3%). Aspergillus spp. was the only mycotoxigenic mould isolated from the samples. The study shows that cassava consumers are exposed to the risk of aflatoxin poisoning. The study, therefore, recommends appropriate surveillance to ensure safety standards., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Boniface Oure Obong'o et al.)