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Invasive fungal infections represent an expanding threat to public health. During the past decade, a paradigm shift of candidiasis from Candida albicans to non-albicans Candida species has fundamentally increased with the advent of Candida auris. C. auris was identified in 2009 and is now recognized as an emerging species of concern and underscores the urgent need for novel drug development strategies. In this review, we discuss the genomic epidemiology and the main virulence factors of C. auris. We also focus on the different new strategies and results obtained during the past decade in the field of antifungal design against this emerging C. auris pathogen yeast, based on a medicinal chemist point of view. Critical analyses of chemical features and physicochemical descriptors will be carried out along with the description of reported strategies.

International audience; A new environmentally friendly approach for the synthesis of idrocilamide (1), a marketed myorelaxant and anti-inflammatory agent, is reported herein. The synthetic strategy involves a solvent-free aminolysis reaction catalyzed by zinc-containing species (ZnCl2 , montmorillonite K10 (MK10) impregnated with ZnCl2 or eco-catalysts). The latter have been prepared from the aerial parts of Lolium perenne L. plants grown on contaminated soils from northern France without and with thermal activation at 120 °C and supported on MK10 (Ecocat1 and Ecocat2, respectively). The best aminolysis catalysts in the current study (ZnCl2 and Ecocat2) were selected for additional aminolyses. Compared to ZnCl2 , Ecocat2 had the advantage of being reusable over five test runs and constituted a sustainable catalyst allowing a green route to idrocilamide. Synthesized derivatives 1-4, 6 and 9 were first evaluated for their effect on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation from macrophages and displayed antioxidant properties by preventing ROS production. Next, the analysis of the effect of molecules 1-4, 6 and 9 on macrophage migration between epithelial cells to human opportunistic fungus Candida albicans indicated that molecules 2-4, 6 and 9 exert anti-inflammatory properties via reducing macrophage migration while the parent idrocilamide (1) did not show any significant effect. This work opens the way for the discovery of new analogues of idrocilamide with improved properties.

International audience; This report deals with the design, the synthesis, and the pharmacological evaluation of pyroglutamide-based P2X7 antagonists. A dozen were shown to possess improved properties, among which inhibition of YO-PRO-1/TO-PRO-3 uptake and IL1β release upon BzATP activation of the receptor and dampening signs of DSS-induced colitis on mice, in comparison with reference antagonist GSK1370319A. Docking study and biological evaluation of synthesized compounds has highlighted new SAR, and low toxicity profiles of pyroglutamides herein described are clues for the finding of a usable h-P2X7 antagonist drug. Such a drug would raise the hope for a cure to many P2X7-dependent pathologies, including inflammatory, neurological, and immune diseases.

Alterations to the gut microbiota can cause an amplification of the inflammatory response to intestinal pathogens. We assessed the effect of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron and Lactobacillus johnsonii on the elimination of Candida species and whether restoration of these two anaerobic bacteria could attenuate the development of colitis in mice. In this study, L. johnsonii and B. thetaiotaomicron interacted directly with Candida species and induced a degradation of the fungal cell wall, mediated via chitinase-like and mannosidase-like activities, which promoted the inhibition of Candida species growth. In the DSS-induced colitis model, oral administration of L. johnsonii and B. thetaiotaomicron to mice reduced the overgrowth of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and Candida glabrata populations and resulted in a significant reduction in inflammatory parameters. L. johnsonii and B. thetaiotaomicron decreased pro-inflammatory mediators and enhanced the anti-inflammatory cytokine response with high TLR9 expression and chitinase-like protein-1 activation, which promoted the elimination of C. glabrata from the gut. Overall, these findings provide evidence that L. johnsonii and B. thetaiotaomicron decrease the development of colitis mediated by TLR9 and promote the elimination of C. glabrata from the gut via chitinase-like and mannosidase-like activities.

The emergence of the novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, which causes severe respiratory tract infections in humans (COVID-19), has become a global health concern. Most coronaviruses infect animals but can evolve into strains that cross the species barrier and infect humans. At the present, there is no single specific vaccine or efficient antiviral therapy against COVID-19. Recently, we showed that intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment reduces inflammation of intestinal epithelial cells and eliminates overgrowth of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans in the murine gut. Immunotherapy with IVIg could be employed to neutralize COVID-19. However, the efficacy of IVIg would be better if the immune IgG antibodies were collected from patients who have recovered from COVID-19 in the same city, or the surrounding area, in order to increase the chance of neutralizing the virus. These immune IgG antibodies will be specific against COVID-19 by boosting the immune response in newly infected patients. Different procedures may be used to remove or inactivate any possible pathogens from the plasma of recovered coronavirus patient derived immune IgG, including solvent/detergent, 60 °C heat-treatment, and nanofiltration. Overall, immunotherapy with immune IgG antibodies combined with antiviral drugs may be an alternative treatment against COVID-19 until stronger options such as vaccines are available.

International audience; Platelets are essential for vascular repair and for the maintenance of blood homeostasis. They contribute to the immune defence of the host against many infections caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi. Following infection, platelet function is modified, and these cells form aggregates with microorganisms leading, to a decrease in the level of circulating platelets. During candidaemia, mannans, β-glucans and chitin, exposed on the cell wall of Candida albicans, an opportunistic pathogenic yeast of humans, play an important role in modulation of the host response. These fungal polysaccharides are released into the circulation during infection and their detection allows the early diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. However, their role in the modulation of the immune response and, in particular, that of platelets, is not well understood. The structure and solubility of glycans play an important role in the orientation of the immune response of the host. This short review focuses on the effect of fungal β-glucans and chitin on platelet activation and how these glycans modulate platelet activity via Toll-like receptors, contributing to the escape of C. albicans from the immune response.

Platelets are capable of binding, aggregating, and internalizing microorganisms, which enhances the elimination of pathogens from the blood. The yeast Candida albicans is a pathobiont causing life-threatening invasive infections. Its cell wall contains β-1,3 glucans that are known to trigger a wide range of host cell activities and to circulate during infection. We studied the effect of β-1,3 glucan fractions (BGFs) consisting of diglucosides (Glc2), tetraglucosides (Glc4), and pentaglucosides (Glc5) on human platelets, their mechanisms of action, and their possible impact on host defenses. The effect of BGFs on the coagulation process was determined by measuring thrombin generation. Platelets pretreated with BGFs were analyzed in terms of activation, receptor expression, aggregation, and adhesion to neutrophils and to C. albicans. The results show that BGFs affected the endogenous thrombin potential in a concentration-dependent manner. For platelet activation, BGFs at a low concentration (2 μmol/l) reduced ATP release and prevented the phosphorylation of protein kinase C. BGFs diminished the expression of P-selectin and the activation of αIIbβ3. BGFs decreased platelet aggregation and the interaction between thrombin-stimulated platelets and neutrophils, fibrinogen, and C. albicans. GLc5 decreased ATP release and TGF-β1 production in response to TLR4 upregulation in thrombin-stimulated platelets, but TLR4 blockage abolished the effect of BGFs on platelets. This study provides evidence that fungal pentaglucosides modulate platelet activity mediated via TLR4 stimulation and reduce platelet-neutrophil interaction.

The diagnosis of systemic Candida infections is a recognized challenge. We developed a mass spectrometry strategy to detect signals from Candida molecules in patients’ sera. Pre-analytical procedures were designed to extract oligosaccharides from serum. A peak m/z of at 365 was specifically revealed in sera from patients with candidaemia with regard to healthy controls. This biomarker was identified as a disaccharide, its presence did not correlate with mannanaemia or glucanaemia. Mouse models of Candida albicans colonization and infection showed that the signal was specifically associated with tissue invasion, suggesting that clinical evaluation of its usefulness in discriminating colonized and infected patients would be worthwhile.

International audience; Yeasts and their glycan components can have a beneficial or adverse effect on intestinal inflammation. Previous research has shown that the presence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii (Sb) reduces intestinal inflammation and colonization by Candida albicans. The aim of this study was to identify dietary yeasts, which have comparable effects to the anti-C. albicans and anti-inflammatory properties of Sb and to assess the capabilities of yeast cell wall components to modulate intestinal inflammation. Mice received a single oral challenge of C. albicans and were then given 1.5% dextran-sulphate-sodium (DSS) for 2 weeks followed by a 3-day restitution period. S. cerevisiae strains (Sb, Sc1 to Sc4), as well as mannoprotein (MP) and β-glucan crude fractions prepared from Sc2 and highly purified β-glucans prepared from C. albicans were used in this curative model, starting 3 days after C. albicans challenge. Mice were assessed for the clinical, histological and inflammatory responses related to DSS administration. Strain Sc1-1 gave the same level of protection against C. albicans as Sb when assessed by mortality, clinical scores, colonization levels, reduction of TNFα and increase in IL-10 transcription. When Sc1-1 was compared with the other S. cerevisiae strains, the preparation process had a strong influence on biological activity. Interestingly, some S. cerevisiae strains dramatically increased mortality and clinical scores. Strain Sc4 and MP fraction favoured C. albicans colonization and inflammation, whereas β-glucan fraction was protective against both. Surprisingly, purified β-glucans from C. albicans had the same protective effect. Thus, some yeasts appear to be strong modulators of intestinal inflammation. These effects are dependent on the strain, species, preparation process and cell wall fraction. It was striking that β-glucan fractions or pure β-glucans from C. albicans displayed the most potent anti-inflammatory effect in the DSS model.

Background Little is known about the relationship between colonic inflammation and Candida albicans colonization. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is an intestinal lectin that binds to specific C. albicans glycans and is involved in inflammation. Methods Colitis was experimentally induced in wild-type and Gal3(-/-) mice using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) before oral administration of C. albicans. Yeast recovered from stools was quantified. The presence of yeast and inflammation were evaluated in sections of colon by histologic examination, quantification of myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and by gene expression for cytokines and innate immune receptors. Serum from mice was collected for determination of anti-yeast mannan antibodies, including anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA), which are biomarkers of an inflammatory bowel disease. Results Inflammation strongly promoted C. albicans colonization. Conversely, C. albicans augmented inflammation induced by DSS, as assessed by histologic scores, MPO activity, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 expression. C. albicans colonization generated ASCA. The absence of Gal-3 reduced DSS inflammation and abolished the response of TLR-2 and TNF-alpha to C. albicans colonization. Conclusions DSS-induced colitis provides a model for establishing C. albicans colonization in mice. This model reveals that C. albicans augments inflammation and confirms the role of Gal-3 in both inflammation and the control of host responses to C. albicans.

Crohn’s disease (CD) is an inflammatory bowel disease characterized by a dysregulation of the inflammatory response caused by dysbiosis and immune system disorders. Mannose Binding Lectin (MBL) and Toll like receptors (TLR) are involved in recognition of microorganisms and inflammatory response. They can recognize different patterns on the surface of the pathogens including Candida albicans. This pathogenic yeast is an immunogen for anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibody (ASCA), diagnostic marker of CD. An association between MBL-deficiency and ASCA is observed in CD, and this MBL deficiency is frequently associated with a severe clinical phenotype of CD. In addition to MBL, TLR2, which forms heterodimers with either TLR1 or TLR6, have a major role in the innate immune defense against C. albicans and promotes intestinal homeostasis. In this project, we studied the role of MBL, TLR1, TLR2, and TLR6 in intestinal homeostasis and elimination of C. albicans in the intestinal tract. In the first part this study; we assessed the effect of either MBL or TLR deficiencies on C. albicans colonization and intestinal inflammation in a murine model. In the second part of this study, we assessed the role of MBL polymorphisms in the modulation of MBL level and activity in CD patients.In murin model, we showed that MBL is locally produced by the epithelial cells in response to C. albicans sensing and to intestinal inflammation and this lectin is required for the intestinal homeostasis. MBL-deficient mice had a higher level of colonization than wild-type mice. DSS-induced colitis promoted a high C. albicans colonization and dissemination to the kidneys and lungs of MBL-deficient mice. MBL-deficient mice exhibited reduced expression of Il-1β and IL-6 and elevated expression of IL-17, IL-23, dectin-1 and TLR-4. In terms of mice deficient in TLRs, DSS treatment and C. albicans oral challenge induced greater weight loss, worse clinical signs of inflammation, higher histopathologic scores, and increased mortality rates in TLR1-/- and TLR2-/- mice when compared to TLR6-/- and wild-type mice. Cytokine expression (TNF, IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-17A) was significantly increased in TLR1-/- and TLR2-/- mice, while they were decreased in TLR6-/- mice. In addition to the experimental studies, we observed in the clinical cohort of CD patients that MBL2 variant rs5030737 (codon 52) was associated with a low level of MBL that leads to impaired MBL-MASP functional activities in both CD patients and healthy subjects. Furthermore, this variant was also associated with a higher level of ASCA in CD patients (p, La maladie de Crohn (MC) est une maladie inflammatoire chronique de l’intestin qui peut être expliquée par une dysbiose et une dérégulation de la réponse immunitaire. La mannose-binding lectin (MBL), récepteur lectinique et les Toll-like récepteurs jouent un rôle crucial dans la défense contre les pathogènes et dans le développement de la réponse inflammatoire. Ils peuvent reconnaitre de nombreux micro-organismes dont Candida albicans. Cette levure commensale est un immunogène des anticorps anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ASCA), anticorps utilisés dans le diagnostic de la MC. Une association entre un déficit en MBL et des taux élevés d’ASCA a été montrée chez les patients atteints de MC. Ce déficit en MBL est fréquemment associé à un phénotype sévère de la maladie. Le récepteur TLR2, associé à TLR1 ou à TLR6, est également impliqué dans la reconnaissance de C. albicans et le maintien de la barrière intestinale. L’objectif de ce projet a été d’étudier le rôle de la MBL et des récepteurs TLR2/TLR1/TLR6 dans l’homéostasie intestinale et l’élimination de C. albicans du tube digestif. Pour cela, nous avons exploré, les effets de la MBL et des TLR sur la colonisation intestinale à C. albicans et l’inflammation intestinale. Par ailleurs, nous avons déterminé, chez l’homme, l’influence des polymorphismes du gène MBL2 sur la modulation de l’activité et des taux de MBL au cours de la MC.A l’aide d’un modèle murin, nous avons mis en évidence l’expression de MBL-A et de MBL-C par les cellules épithéliales intestinales et leur implication dans l’homéostasie intestinale. Un déficit en MBL favorise la colonisation par C. albicans et une dissémination de la levure, en présence d’une colite chimio-induite. Les récepteurs TLR1 et TLR2 participent également dans la défense contre la colonisation par C. albicans, sans pour autant que leurs déficits n’entrainent de dissémination de la levure. A l’inverse, le récepteur TLR6 favorise la colonisation par C. albicans. La MBL et les récepteurs TLR1/TLR2/TLR6 régulent aussi l’expression des cytokines pro-inflammatoires impliquées dans les réponses Th1 et Th17. Ces résultats expérimentaux ont incité à envisager la poursuite de notre travail en approfondissant l’étude clinique sur des variations quantitatives et qualitatives de la MBL chez les patients atteints de MC et leur lien éventuel avec la persistance de l’inflammation intestinale. L’étude sur la cohorte de patients MC a montré que le gène MBL2 était associé à un déficit quantitatif en MBL et un déficit qualitatif du complexe MBL-MASP chez les sujets sains et les patients. Ce polymorphisme est également associé à des taux élevés d’ASCA chez les patients MC (p