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Linear growth during childhood is the result of the synergic contribution of different factors. The best growth determinant system during each period of life is represented by the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor axis (GH-IGF), even if several other factors are involved in normal growth. Within the broad spectrum of growth disorders, an increased importance has been placed on growth hormone insensitivity (GHI). GHI was reported for the first time by Laron as a syndrome characterized by short stature due to GH receptor (GHR) mutation. To date, it is recognized that GHI represents a wide diagnostic category, including a broad spectrum of defects. The peculiar characteristic of GHI is the low IGF-1 levels associated with normal or elevated GH levels and the lack of IGF-1 response after GH administration. Recombinant IGF-1 preparations may be used in the treatment of these patients., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Mastromauro, Giannini and Chiarelli.)

Bile acids (BAs) are amphipathic molecules synthetized in the liver. They are primarily involved in the digestion of nutrients. Apart from their role in dietary lipid absorption, BAs have progressively emerged as key regulators of systemic metabolism and inflammation. In the last decade, it became evident that BAs are particularly important for the regulation of glucose, lipid, and energy metabolism. Indeed, the interest in role of BA in metabolism homeostasis is further increased due to the global public health increase in obesity and related complications and a large number of research postulating that there is a close mutual relationship between BA and metabolic disorders. This strong relationship seems to derive from the role of BAs as signaling molecules involved in the regulation of a wide spectrum of metabolic pathways. These actions are mediated by different receptors, particularly nuclear farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and Takeda G protein coupled receptor 5 (TGR5), which are probably the major effectors of BA actions. These receptors activate transcriptional networks and signaling cascades controlling the expression and activity of genes involved in BA, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, energy expenditure, and inflammation. The large correlation between BAs and metabolic disorders offers the possibility that modulation of BAs could be used as a therapeutic approach for the treatment of metabolic diseases, including obesity itself. The aim of this review is to describe the main physiological and metabolic actions of BA, focusing on its signaling pathways, which are important in the regulation of metabolism and might provide new BA -based treatments for metabolic diseases., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Giannini, Mastromauro, Scapaticci, Gentile and Chiarelli.)