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Long-distance dispersal seems to be the main biogeographic event responsible for intriguing distribution patterns in plant groups in which sister taxa are separated by thousands of kilometers of distance across oceans and continents. The biotic and abiotic mechanisms behind such dispersal events are poorly understood and many attempts have been made to explain how plants can manage to disperse and survive these long journeys. The biogeographic history of Boraginaceae, a subcosmopolitan plant family with many disjunct clades, is here addressed and analyzed in the context of the different dispersal modes exhibited by the species. The lack of a clear pattern between the main dispersal events in Boraginaceae and the phylogenetic distribution of the dispersal modes indicates that no single dispersal mechanism can be associated with the events of dispersal in the family. Moreover, adaptations to different dispersal agents and unassisted dispersal modes in some clades might have promoted the diversification of Boraginaceae in various habitats across several continents. Our study reveals that long-distance dispersal is a very complex process that needs to be analyzed in the context of climatic and environmental changes and the response of plants and their dispersal vectors to these variable conditions.

The tropical Andes are a hotspot of biodiversity, but detailed altitudinal and latitudinal distribution patterns of species are poorly understood. We compare the distribution and diversity patterns of four Andean plant groups on the basis of georeferenced specimen data: the genus Nasa (Loasaceae), the two South American sections of Ribes (sect. Parilla and sect. Andina, Grossulariaceae), and the American clade of Urtica (Urticaceae). In the tropical Andes, these often grow together, especially in (naturally or anthropogenically) disturbed or secondary vegetation at middle to upper elevations. The climatic niches of the tropical groups studied here are relatively similar in temperature and temperature seasonality, but do differ in moisture seasonality. The Amotape–Huancabamba Zone (AHZ) between 3 and 8° S shows a clear diversity peak of overall species richness as well as for narrowly endemic species across the groups studied. For Nasa, we also show a particular diversity of growth forms in the AHZ. This can be interpreted as proxy for a high diversity of ecological niches based on high spatial habitat heterogeneity in this zone. Latitudinal ranges are generally larger toward the margins of overall range of the group. Species number and number of endemic species of our taxa peak at elevations of 2,500–3,500 m in the tropical Andes. Altitudinal diversity patterns correspond well with the altitudinal distribution of slope inclination. We hypothesize that the likelihood and frequency of landslides at steeper slopes translate into temporal habitat heterogeneity. The frequency of landslides may be causally connected to diversification especially for the numerous early colonizing taxa, such as Urtica and annual species of Nasa. In contrast to earlier hypotheses, uplift history is not reflected in the pattern here retrieved, since the AHZ is the area of the most recent Andean uplift. Similarly, a barrier effect of the low-lying Huancabamba depression is not retrieved in our data.

Andean orogeny is considered as one of the most important events for the developmentof current plant diversity in South America. We compare available phylogenetic studies anddivergence time estimates for plant lineages that may have diversified in response to Andeanorogeny. The influence of the Andes on plant diversification is separated into four major groups:The Andes as source of new high-elevation habitats, as a vicariant barrier, as a North-Southcorridor and as generator of new environmental conditions outside the Andes. Biogeographicalrelationships between the Andes and other regions are also considered. Divergence timeestimates indicate that high-elevation lineages originated and diversified during or after the majorphases of Andean uplift (Mid-Miocene to Pliocene), although there are some exceptions. Asexpected, Andean mid-elevation lineages tend to be older than high-elevation groups. Mostclades with disjunct distribution on both sides of the Andes diverged during Andean uplift.Inner-Andean clades also tend to have divergence time during or after Andean uplift. This isinterpreted as evidence of vicariance. Dispersal along the Andes has been shown to occur ineither direction, mostly dated after the Andean uplift. Divergence time estimates of plant groupsoutside the Andes encompass a wider range of ages, indicating that the Andes may not benecessarily the cause of these diversifications. The Andes are biogeographically related to allneighbouring areas, especially Central America, with floristic interchanges in both directionssince Early Miocene times. Direct biogeographical relationships between the Andes and otherdisjunct regions have also been shown in phylogenetic studies, especially with the easternBrazilian highlands and North America. The history of the Andean flora is complex and plantdiversification has been driven by a variety of processes, including environmental change,adaptation, and biotic interactions