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Framework-forming scleractinian cold-water corals (CWCs) act as ecosystem engineers, building and supporting biodiversity hotspots in the deep sea worldwide. While spatial patterns and drivers of species distributions have been evaluated on modern CWC reefs, little is known about how reef diversity is affected by habitat variability over geologic time – the scale at which CWC reefs initiate, thrive, and decline. Using three CWC reef sediment cores as species diversity archives, we investigated temporal trends of molluscan diversity over the last ~13 kyr from a CWC mound in the Alboran Sea (western Mediterranean Sea) to evaluate (a) how spatial patterns of CWC-associated diversity are recorded in reef sediments, (b) the potential of CWC reefs as biodiversity hotspots when coral growth is flourishing and when it is not, and (c) which palaeoceanographic conditions or habitat characteristics may be driving biodiversity. Our results reveal that at the ecosystem scale ecological differences between CWC habitats are more pronounced than ecological signatures of molluscan assemblages associated with intervals of CWC framework (flourishing growth) or non-framework (negligible CWC growth). However, within habitats, significant differences emerge between these assemblages with lower molluscan diversity associated with flourishing CWC growth. Significant negative correlations between molluscan diversity and palaeoceanographic conditions conducive for CWC growth (high food availability, strong hydrodynamics, optimal bottom-water temperatures and salinities, and high aggradation rates indicative of flourishing CWC growth also imply that CWC growth and relevant environmental conditions contribute to reduced molluscan diversity. Additionally, high coral volume, used here as a proxy for habitat structural complexity, is positively correlated with molluscan diversity just as high habitat complexity is in living CWC reefs. Altogether, these patterns detected over geologic time resemble those observed spatially across living CWC reefs today – where competition with resources, particularly food, prevents high reef biodiversity in the immediate vicinity of dense living CWC colonies. Overall, our study demonstrates that (1) ecological paradigms of living CWCs are preserved in their sedimentary record, (2) flourishing CWC growth and conditions promoting CWC growth drive habitat-scale diversity patterns, and (3) a geological approach can be applied to study long-term diversity dynamics in CWC ecosystems.

Cold-water corals mounds develop over millennial timescales as a result of sustained coral growth and concurrent with sediment deposition within their coral frameworks. So far, coral mounds have been primarily investigated as deep-sea biodiversity hotspots and geo-biological paleo-archives, whereas their morphological appearance and spatial arrangement have received much less attention. Here, we analysed the spatial distribution and the morphometry of coral mounds that developed on the Namibian shelf during a single short period dating back to the Early. The spatial distribution of these “early-stage” mounds and their morphological characteristics revealed a hierarchy of three different patterns. These comprise an alongslope mound distribution at a regional scale (first-order pattern), a topography-steered downslope alignment of mounds at a local scale (second-order pattern), and a hydrodynamic-controlled downslope orientation of the individual mounds at a mound scale (third-order pattern). In addition, because the Namibian mounds rarely exceed 20 m in height, key steps in the development of early-stage coral mounds (e.g. elongation, merging, limited gain in height compared to lateral extension) have been identified. With increasing size, coral mounds are more elongated, parallel to the prevailing tidal system, which is interpreted to reflect the transition from an “inherited” to a “developed” mound morphology. Besides supporting this earlier hypothesis on mound development, we could show that this transition takes place when the Namibian coral mounds reach ~150 m in length and ~8 m in height. This study reveals that the spatial-morphological appearance of coral mounds, often treated as a descriptive information, can provide valid information to understand their formation.

The formation of cold-water coral (CWC) mounds is commonly seen as being the result of the sustained growth of framework-forming CWCs and the concurrent supply and deposition of terrigenous sediments under energetic hydrodynamic conditions. Yet only a limited number of studies investigated the complex interplay of the various hydrodynamic, sedimentological and biological processes involved in mound formation, which, however, focused on the environmental conditions promoting coral growth. Therefore, we are still lacking an in-depth understanding of the processes allowing the on-mound deposition of hemipelagic sediments, which contribute to two thirds of coral mound deposits. To investigate these processes over geological time and to evaluate their contribution to coral mound formation, we reconstructed changes in sediment transport and deposition by comparing sedimentological parameters (grain-size distribution, sediment composition, accumulation rates) of two sediment cores collected from a Mediterranean coral mound and the adjacent seafloor (off-mound). Our results showed that under a turbulent hydrodynamic regime promoting coral growth during the Early Holocene, the deposition of fine siliciclastic sediments shifted from the open seafloor to the coral mounds. This led to a high average mound aggradation rate of >130 cm kyr–1, while sedimentation rates in the adjacent off-mound area at the same time did not exceed 10 cm kyr–1. Thereby, the baffling of suspended sediments by the coral framework and their deposition within the ecological accommodation space provided by the corals seem to be key processes for mound formation. Although, it is commonly accepted that these processes play important roles in various sedimentary environments, our study provided for the first time, core-based empirical data proving the efficiency of these processes in coral mound environment. In addition, our approach to compare the grain-size distribution of the siliciclastic sediments deposited concurrently on a coral mound and on the adjacent seafloor allowed us to investigate the integrated influence of coral mound morphology and coral framework on the mound formation process. Based on these results, this study provides the first conceptual model for coral mound formation by applying sequence stratigraphic concepts, which highlights the interplay of the coral-framework baffling capacity, coral-derived ecological accommodation space and sediment supply.

As “ecosystem engineers,” framework-forming scleractinian cold-water corals (CWC) build reefs that are unique biodiversity hotspots in the deep sea. Studies using common biological techniques such as correlating the spatial occurrence of the most common CWC species with modeled environmental conditions have revealed the ecological requirements and tolerances of these species. However, limited field observations and poorly understood geographical distribution patterns of the CWC restrict the application of existing knowledge toward assessing their fate (e.g., local extinction, newly established populations) under ongoing global change. Hence, the risk to cross ecological tipping points causing the demise (or establishment) of entire CWC reefs remains unclear. A major challenge is to identify the key environmental parameters (or stressors) having the potential to control CWC vitality by providing such tipping points. This is largely hampered by the overall lack of present-day observations of such tipping point crossings. However, evidence for such events is frequently preserved in geological records revealing that entire CWC ecosystems vanished or returned at specific moments in the past. Here, a geological approach is presented that by correlating geological CWC records with paleoceanographic data describing past environmental changes allows to identify a set of key environmental drivers that directly or indirectly control CWC vitality. Thus, by combining such a geological approach with common biological techniques (see above) to describe the ecological tolerance of the most important reef-building CWC has a great potential to better assess their future spatial distribution in times of accelerating global change and to improve the sustainable management of the important deep-sea ecosystems formed by CWC.