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Purpose The rapidly changed global context for internationalization (IZN) over the next decade prompted a decision to use a futurist perspective for identifying issues to be considered in the organization’s next strategic plan. This paper aims to report on this project to identify current and strategic issues influencing the future strategy of the higher education (HE) IZN for Thailand on behalf of the Bureau of International Cooperation Strategy and the Office of the Higher Education Commission. Design/methodology/approach The research approach was a customized version of the University of Houston’s Framework Foresight method. It involved framing the domain with a description and domain map, scanning for signals of change within the domain and emerging issues analysis to produce a set of current and emerging issues. A planning step synthesizes a set of recommended actions. Findings The key findings reported in this paper are the identification of 14 current and emerging issues influencing the future of the IZN of HE in Thailand. The issues were organized along with the three horizons framework: H1: how are we [currently] doing? H2: what should we do next and H3, where do we want to go? The primary recommendation of this research reported on in this study is to consider the 14 issues for inclusion into the next strategic plan. Seven specific strategic options mapped over three phases were identified as well. The research reported here was carried out for Thailand, but the process could easily be adapted by other countries and other topics. Research limitations/implications The modified version of the University of Houston Framework Foresight approach has been applied successfully to many topics. The topic explored here is focused on one nation, Thailand. The authors feel the lessons are, however, broadly applicable. Practical implications The ability to use a futurist perspective to identify current and emerging issues is highlighted. The organizing of the issues using the three horizons framework proved to be particularly useful in helping the client to develop a sense of timing regarding the future, that is, when and to what degree to pay attention to the many issues that typically confront any organization. Originality/value The use of the three horizons framework in the analysis of the emerging issues provide benefits in two ways in situating the likely timing of signals of change in horizon scanning and “scan hits” both scanning for the identification of issues and organizing the resulting current and emerging issues along the three horizons with H1 current issues: how are we [currently] doing?; H2 emerging issues: what should we do next and H3 emerging issues, where do we want to go? The paper also includes a section exploring the impact of Covid-19 on the likely timing of the issues identified just before the pandemic hit, finding that timing of some issues would speed up, some would stay the same and some would slow down.

PurposeThe impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have transformed the global outlook for international higher education. Given the rapid shift to online learning, the Tokyo Convention in the Asia-Pacific entrusted to UNESCO has become an important policy framework to facilitate regional collaboration, authoritative information sharing and recognition of qualifications across diverse modes of learning. This paper examines the role of the Tokyo Convention to establish an inclusive platform for monitoring and collaborative governance of mobility and internationalization based on fair and transparent recognition policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific.Design/methodology/approachIn August 2019, a standardized survey instrument was sent by the Secretariat of the Tokyo Convention Committee at UNESCO Bangkok to competent recognition authorities in 46 countries in the Asia-Pacific, including the eight State Parties to the Tokyo Convention that ratified the Convention as of the reporting period. In total, qualitative data from n = 27 countries/states was received and analyzed to assess implementation of the Tokyo Convention throughout the region. The research design illustrates how normative instruments such as the Tokyo Convention are monitored and assessed over time.FindingsA multi-stakeholder approach based on collaborative governance is needed to effectively monitor implementation and implications of the Tokyo Convention for diverse higher education stakeholders in the Asia-Pacific region.Research limitations/implicationsImplications include establishing baseline data and methods for monitoring implementation of the Tokyo Convention. Based on collaborative governance theory, the paper explores potential for a multi-stakeholder approach to promote mutual accountability in the Asia-Pacific and to develop mechanisms for inclusive participation in the governance of the forthcoming Global Convention on recognition.Originality/valueAs the first systematic review of its kind, this paper includes a unique dataset and insights into UNESCO's methodology to monitor implementation of standard-setting instruments for qualifications recognition in the Asia-Pacific.

PurposeThe main reason for writing this paper was the systematic determination of the state of internationalization of public higher education for the first time in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). This paper aims to compare the state of internationalization with the results of comparative European and world research in higher education in order to determine the direction of public universities in B&H following globalization and connection with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), as well as to determine future steps for mandatory inclusion into global higher education flows. Furthermore, the aim was to determine the treatment of mobility and student exchange programs and the ways of recognizing acquired qualifications abroad.Design/methodology/approachThe paper opted for a research study by conducting questionnaires that were divided into questions of elimination, questions of qualification and questions of the main survey. A total of 2,822 final year students were surveyed, as well as 386 representatives of the management of public universities. Within the paper, 25 different SWOT analyses of internationalization were performed by public universities, ministries and state/regional agencies, which was the basis for the SWOT analysis of the internationalization of B&H public higher education. The data were supplemented with a qualitative analysis of the obtained results compared with the International Association of Universities (IAU) and European Association for International Education (EAIE) research, as well as an overview of the most significant achievements in the field of internationalization of higher education.FindingsThe paper provides empirical results on the barriers of students to study abroad, the existence of strategies and indicators for internationalization, the benefits of internationalization, internal and external drivers of internationalization and the potential risks of internationalization. These empirical results for B&H were compared with complementary IAUs and EAIE research and provided the basis for SWOT analysis of internationalization, development of institutional internationalization strategies and indicators, B&H recognition model, new criteria for accreditation with emphasis on internationalization and criteria for assessing internationalization. The paper suggests that virtual mobility and internationalization at home are future logical trends of development internationalization in B&H.Research limitations/implicationsSuggestions for future research related to the examination of identified potential risks to the management of the internationalization of individual institutions, as well as to future comparisons of the new state of internationalization of higher education in B&H with current similar research in Europe and the world. Regarding the limitations in the research, it was possible that a larger number of participants participated in the survey with questionnaires, although the target set at the beginning of the survey was achieved.Practical implicationsMost of the research results are the basis for improving the practical situation in the internationalization of public higher education in B&H. The paper presents a special chapter (undertaken improvement activities) dedicated to the practical implications based on the conducted research and comparison of results. Considering that this is a preliminary work related to the internationalization of higher education, based on the researched results, the context of the internationalization of public higher education in B&H was changed by the activities described in the mentioned chapter. The contribution to these activities was given by the approved project of the European Commission (EC) “strengthening of internationalization in B&H higher education” - STINT. Also, the research results of this paper offered a comparison with the research results of research conducted by IAUs and EAIE.Social implicationsDifferent research groups participated in this research study: students, teachers, administration, representatives of ministries and state/regional agencies. All target groups supported the implementation of the questionnaire, the development of SWOT analyses and various reports, as well as the undertaking of various practical activities. In accordance with the research results, all these target groups were subsequently educated on issues of internationalization and recognition of qualifications. Stronger and better internationalization certainly increases the social impact on future students, higher education funders, as well as other interested stakeholders.Originality/valueThis is a preliminary study whose main goal was to review the state of internationalization and to identify the most important undertaken activities in B&H. For the higher education area in B&H, the research study is new and has undertaken internationalization activities, but on the other side, in other developed European countries, similar studies and activities are not new. For the field of higher education in B&H, this work and research results are important because they will be the basis for future internationalization activities and will also serve as a basis for future activities to be undertaken in this field. The value of this paper is significant for both internal and external stakeholders of higher education.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the policy trends for the internationalization of higher education in Korea, and suggest a future direction toward the pursuit of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).Design/methodology/approachThis paper presents a case study of Korea focusing on its internationalization in higher education. In order to analyze the government policy trends and institutional strategies for internationalization, the relevant literature and documents were analyzed.FindingsThe government policy for the internationalization of higher education in Korea has consisted of three stages: first, controlled outbound mobility; second, a major shift and focus on inbound mobility, recently along with intraregional cooperation for both directions of mobility in Asia and third, the beginning of efforts toward the pursuit of the SDGs, which needs to be expanded and systematized further.Originality/valueThis paper shows presents the comprehensive review of internationalization policies in Korean higher education, including the recent programs and changes at both the governmental and institutional levels. There has been a notable lack of discussion on the SDGs in relation to the internationalization of Korean higher education, which is addressed in this paper.

PurposeThis paper aim to argue for Cambodia to take internationalization of higher education seriously and strategically to position it for higher education development, and this starts with enhancing its buy-in among the key stakeholders, fine-tuning its conceptualization and contextualization and a government-funded comprehensive policy and investment program.Design/methodology/approachThis paper explores policies and practices of internationalization in Cambodia, using Knight's (2004, 2007) conceptualization of internationalization and Wan's (2018) list of six dimensions, by which the authors track and measure internationalization.FindingsSystematic policy implementation to position internationalization to achieve national and institutional goals is little. Given utilitarianism of internationalization, policy statement has geared more toward employing internationalization to achieve institutional building, in order of significance: mobility, research collaboration, policy formulation and quality control, and much less on networking and aligning with international instruments. Subtle differences among the four universities under investigation exist. While all focus on student and faculty mobility and exchange, some aim at research collaboration and networks; some at indigenous “international” and language programs, and some at joint degree programs. But, internationalization is not a key priority nor is it strategically positioned to achieve institutional aspirations.Practical implicationsWithout comprehensive, strategic policy guidance and implementation from the government, internationalization has taken its own course, and such is not healthy for higher education development.Originality/valueThere are few studies on internationalization in Cambodia. Clayton and Yuok (1997), Clayton (2002) and Pit and Ford (2004) examine politics or its politicization and higher education development after the end of the Eastern Bloc's support (Tek and Leng, 2017). Recent studies (Leng, 2015; Leng, 2016; Yun, 2014) underline institutional case studies to illustrate status, issues and challenges in internationalization. This article attempts to provide an overarching map of internationalization to inform policies and practices toward higher education and national development.

PurposeThis paper contributes to knowledge on the internationalization of higher education (HE) through presenting a “lived” experience on how to optimize internationalization outcomes through national internationalization policy development.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses a case study of Zimbabwe to qualitatively chart a strategic focus to internationalization through incorporating the theory of change (ToC) approach to national (government) policy development.FindingsThe paper details the context, challenges, rationales, approaches, priorities and processes that guided IHE policy development in Zimbabwe. It underscores the importance of baseline research and benchmarking in propelling an evidence-based and participatory approach to IHE policy development.Research limitations/implicationsThe methodology and framework used here makes it possible to draw comparisons in similar settings in a way that enables a more holistic understanding of the complexities and practicalities of national internationalization policy development.Practical implicationsThe study can assist nations to take a strategic approach to guide institutional internationalization responses. In doing so, researchers and HE stakeholders in similar national contexts can learn valuable lessons from the study.Social implicationsInternationalization is increasingly becoming a policy imperative for HE in pursuit of quality as well as fostering sustainable national development (Craciun, 2018). Higher education institutions (HEIs) are recognized as key drivers of sustainable national and international development through the production of quality graduates with “global competencies.”Originality/valueThe study contributes to the growing research interest on strategic approaches to internationalization targeting specific national experiences.

PurposeThis paper reviews the national and institutional internationalization activities in Japan's higher education sector and considers the extent to which these efforts have attempted to incorporate and/or contribute to meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).Design/methodology/approachThis paper was developed based on a review of available demographic data on internationalization in Japan (in both English and Japanese), a survey of recent scholarly literature on this topic and conversations with numerous faculty and staff members working on internationalization issues in a wide range of higher education institutions throughout the country.FindingsThere are substantial internationalization efforts being made at both national and institutional levels, yet scholars and practitioners of higher education question the extent to which genuine internationalization is occurring. Moreover, the metrics used to track internationalization are somewhat limited and the available data, in many cases, can be complicated to interpret. A bit of tension also exists in Japanese universities between those who support the movement to internationalize and those who see it as a passing fad, an intrusion on their academic freedom and/or as a guise for Westernization – a tension that some cite, along with language barriers and system misalignment, as a challenge to internationalization.Originality/valueNumerous scholars discuss the internationalization of higher education in Japan. The originality of this paper is in the comparison of Japan's higher education internationalization efforts to the movement to achieve the SDGs – both in Japan and as a global effort.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to deal with the topic internationalization of higher education institutions (IHEI), in terms of the research they engage in. The main motivation for the study is to understand the role of researchers in the internationalization of the institutions in which they work through the academic activities they perform. Based on the assumption that each of the researcher’s internationalization activities leads, to some extent, to a greater internationalization of HEI in which it operates, the following question was proposed: Do researchers’ personal characteristics and academic activities affect the internationalization of their (higher education) institutions? Design/methodology/approach This qualitative study adopted as main methods a review of the literature on internationalization of higher education and in-depth interviews based on a semi-structured script with an intentional sample. A sample of 16 researchers was selected for interview using the snowball technique of sample selection. Findings The paper provides theoretical and empirical insights into the characteristics of researchers that influence the internationalization of HEIs. These include the researchers’ international academic experience; insertion in international collaboration networks; international co-authorship; and experience in international publications. These are the four main factors that emerge at the individual level (researcher) that positively impact IHEI. Originality/value The paper responds to a gap found in the literature on the underestimated role of researchers in the internationalization process of HEIs in which they work.

Purpose Policies regarding international student enrollment represents diversified responses and attitudes on internationalization of higher education, which is associated not only to the internal reforms of the higher education system but also to the adjustment of government-institution relationships in larger contexts of economic development, and cultural and diplomatic strategies. The purpose of this paper is therefore to analyze the trend of the mainland China’s inbound international student mobility during the past decades in the broader context of the country’s diplomatic and domestic political circumstances. Design/methodology/approach By using a historical and holistic approach, this paper identifies four stages of the development of international education for inbound international students, and examines the underpinning ideologies or motives of the trend. Findings Findings of this research suggestthat different from the triumph of other Asian countries in international education, neo-liberalism has inserted a very limited impact to the development of international education of the mainland China, mainly at the micro level; the main motive of international education in China is to serve its domestic politics and diplomacy. A type of new nationalism is emerging in China’s recent global strategy. Originality/value This paper responds to the broader discussion of natioanlism vs internationalism by looking at the complex relationship between the state, international relations, and higher education institutions.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the challenges of managing transnational education (TNE) partnerships from the perspective of the home university managers. Design/methodology/approach The study adopts a qualitative, “insider researcher” methodology’. It uses a sample set of eight mangers who operate from the home university and 13 “in-country” managers who are seconded to head up the overseas TNE partnerships. The samples are all drawn from UK universities to standardise for other variables (e.g. legislative framework). Findings It finds that the managers based at the home campus report a generally negative attitude, emphasising the riskiness and the lack of scalability, sustainably and profitability, as well as the general resistance to TNE from staff on the home campus. The in-country managers, in contrast, experience the same lack of empathy from their peers at home, but this group tends to more closely associate themselves with their local colleagues and to be drawn into building relationships with local stakeholders. Research limitations/implications The limitation of this research is that it is based on a sample of managers from the same country. Practical implications In practical terms, the findings suggest that universities need to do more to increase awareness and commitment to their TNE partnerships amongst staff at the home campus, while providing better professional development and more frequent rotations for their in-country managers. Originality/value This paper extends the very limited literature on the management of TNE partnerships.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the way in which higher education participation is democratized in the entrepreneurial city of Hong Kong by the policy innovation that encompasses internationalization. There is a dearth of empirical studies about transnational education in Hong Kong, except for a few which examine students’ perceptions of transnational education from a user perspective, situated in marketized conditions (Leung and Waters, 2013; Waters and Leung, 2013a, b). The minimal volume of existing research has ignored the innovative aspects of democratizing higher learning by internationalization, namely, the operation of international degrees by overseas universities on offshore campuses. This policy innovation by transnational institutions is significant in an era of the globalization of higher education, as access to higher education cannot be otherwise realized given the local education policies. Design/methodology/approach Employing documentary research, this paper presents and assesses the growth of community college international education at The University of Hong Kong and its unique facets, juxtaposing it with the marketized context of East Asian higher education. It engages in specific reviews surrounding the operational mode and academic collaborations of the international educational programs and practices at the Hong Kong University’s School of Professional and Continuing Education. Findings This documentary research finds that the internationalized academic profession of partner universities enables curriculum design, pedagogy, teaching ideas and assessment methods to be informed by a diversity of international academic cultures and indigenous knowledge. Through this policy innovation, international education is institutionalized in such a way that it takes Hong Kong students beyond the community college context, which is relatively localized. It also illuminates the way in which the “ideoscape” of American community colleges and international partnerships with Australian and British universities have been manifested in the Hong Kong education hub for transnational student flows and intellectual exchanges across the Asian region. Originality/value This paper contributes to the academic literature of higher education studies, particularly in the areas of massification and democratization, as well as their connection with internationalization and policy innovation. It also delineates various forces that are propelling the development of higher education’s internationalization and massification.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the complexity of developing into an international institution from the perspective of higher education leaders through the case study of one institution engaged in institutional transformation. Design/methodology/approach This study employs the qualitative approach and involves in-depth interviews with key institutional managers. Findings Findings suggest internationalization is a dynamic change process that goes beyond the rational and predictive elements of internationalization and cannot be confined to the rational planning and grand plans solely at institutional level. Reciprocal influence of different levels of analysis – institution, society and the nation – needs to be acknowledged and internationalization efforts need to go beyond the confines of the institution and extend into the society and the nation as a whole. Originality/value Internationalization of higher education has been widely examined, but the reciprocal influence of different levels of analysis on the internationalization efforts of higher education institutions is thin to which this paper contributes.

PurposeThe aim in this paper is to extend Dorothy Smith's conceptual understanding of work to consider the emerging labor of “knowmads” within internationalization of higher education. Through original research on everyday experiences of internationalization, the authors seek to illuminate the ways individuals develop skills and competencies in relation to these new forms of work in order to address the reproduction of inequities. The authors make a connection between internationalization of higher education and knowmadic labor based on the premise that cross‐border education is often pursued in order to develop knowmadic attributes.Design/methodology/approachThrough a critical institutional ethnography of one mid‐sized Canadian university, the paper uses survey and interview data gathered from students and faculty ‐ individuals who are involved in knowmadic labor connected to internationalization – to illustrate some of the study participants' daily experiences of internationalization coordinated by the institutional structures of the university in times of globalization.FindingsIt is concluded that internationalization and connecting new forms of work involved in becoming and producing knowmads not only bypass and disregard present inequities in higher education, but work to reproduce them in new ways.Practical implicationsThe paper provides insight in regards to processes and allocation of work within internationalization, while addressing forms of social inequities that often cut across these practices and concludes with brief comments on the implications of academic knowmadic labor in Western higher education institutions engaged in internationalization.Originality/valueWhile research has been conducted on work in international contexts, little has addressed “the labor” that is involved in becoming knowmads, and that of “producing” knowmads. The paper draws connections between the internationalization of higher education and knowmadic work showing that knowmadic labor is often preceded by knowmadic educational opportunities. The cosmopolitan vision of creating globally aware citizens, with international knowledge, skills, and competencies that institutions espouse, are assumed to be good per se, and to lead to knowmadic qualities and attributes required in a knowmad society. The paper questions these assumptions and the relations of power on which they rest.

PurposeThis paper aims to stress the importance of international and intercultural opportunities in serving as essential components in educating and training library and information professionals. More specifically, it provides an overview of issues and trends in internationalization of higher education (HE) in general and illustrates how the concept of and approaches to internationalization have affected library and information science (LIS) educational settings and programs primarily in Europe and the USA.Design/methodology/approachBased on a literature review, the paper discusses the meaning and definition of the concept of internationalization. Using a framework that draws on theoretical work on internationalisation of HE programs/contexts an analysis is then presented of the changing nature of internationalization in HE environments. The theoretical analysis is coupled with illustrations of current internationalisation practices, projects, strategies and players within LIS education communities in Europe and the USA. Finally, a discussion of the principal issues of internationalization of the LIS curriculum is presentedFindingsA synthesis is provided of the body of knowledge on the topics of internationalisation in general and within the HE sector in particular. Also presented is an overview of the multifaceted internationalisation activities taking place within LIS education. A range of thoughts and suggestions are given on how LIS schools can respond to the challenges of an increasing global world and, more specifically, how they can develop LIS programs and create classroom settings that are truly international in orientation and scope.Research limitations/implicationsThe geographical scope is limited to Europe and North America and the focus of the study is particularly on issues and challenges within the LIS education community.Practical implicationsExposure to international educational environments and acquisition and absorption of intercultural values and skills serves to enhance and enrich the academic background of LIS students/graduates and add to the employability and career development of the coming LIS professionals. International outlook, networking and intercultural communication skills are essential for practitioners, policy makers, leaders, decision makers, researchers and educators in the LIS field.Originality/valueNo comprehensive study of the internationalization of LIS programs in the context of HE sector‐specific internationalization theory has previously been published. The paper makes a difference in the way it reflects on LIS internationalization issues and tasks from the perspective of the published literature on internationalization of HE.

This paper aims to provide insights into the internationalization strategic responses to the COVID-19 pandemic by higher education institutions (HEIs) in Latin America.,This study is based on information from eight leading Latin American private universities. The data were obtained from official sources such as institutional communications and university administrators.,The authors identify two main issues that HEIs should consider while responding to the pandemic. First, greater attention and resource allocation to the universities' main local stakeholders can affect traditional internationalization activities. Second, a focus on revitalizing foreign partnerships and strengthening “virtual internationalization” can help maintain and eventually increase international presence.,While this study analyses how these Latin American HEIs responded during the initial stages of the COVID-19 outbreak, it is important to conduct follow-up studies to shed light on how HEIs are adapting to the COVID-19 crisis as it continues to unfold.,This study is based on unique information gathered from leading private, not-for-profit HEIs in Latin America, which, contrary to state-owned HEIs or other private institutions in developed economies, have exhibited different means and conditions to respond to the coronavirus outbreak. Finally, the authors contribute to the literature on the internationalization of HEIs by discussing the role of a significant disruptive event on the internationalization of higher education and, particularly, business schools.,Este articulo discute las respuestas estrategicas de internacionalizacion frente a la pandemia del COVID-19 implementadas por Instituciones de Educacion Superior (IES) en America Latina.,Este estudio se basa en informacion de ocho universidades privadas lideres en America Latina. La informacion fue obtenida de fuentes oficiales tales como comunicados institucionales y autoridades.,Identificamos dos temas principales que las IES deben considerar mientras responden al COVID-19. Primero, una mayor atencion y reubicacion de recursos hacia los principales grupos de interes local puede afectar las actividades tradicionales de internacionalizacion. Segundo, revitalizar las alianzas extranjeras y fortalecer la “internacionalizacion virtual” puede ayudar a mantener y eventualmente incrementar la presencia internacional.,Si bien este estudio analiza como un grupo de IES Latinoamericanas respondieron durante las etapas iniciales del COVID-19, es importante continuar analizando como las IES se siguen adaptando a medida que la crisis COVID-19 avanza.,Este estudio se basa en datos unicos obtenidos de IES privadas, sin fines de lucro, y lideres en America Latina que, al contrario de las universidades publicas u otras IES en economias desarrolladas, exhiben medios y condiciones diferentes para responder a la expansion del coronavirus. Finalmente, este trabajo contribuye a la literatura sobre internacionalizacion de IES mediante la discusion del rol de un evento disruptivo de escala mundial en la internacionalizacion de universidades y, particularmente, escuelas de negocios.

PurposeThe research aims to provide the basis for a better understanding of the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam. First, it examines Vietnam's higher education reforms and policy/ legal frameworks for the promotion of internationalization since the implementation of Doi Moi in 1986. Secondly, it analyzes the internationalization activities at the national and institutional levels. At both levels, the internationalization activities are categorized into internationalization at home and cross borders (Knight, 2012). Finally, the paper discusses the challenges Vietnamese HE is facing and presents policy directions.Design/methodology/approachThis study employs a case study research strategy to examine and gain understanding of internationalization of higher education in Vietnam as a phenomenon. The study collected detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a period of time. First, it analyzes Vietnam's higher education reforms as well as policy and legal framework for the promotion of internationalization. Then, using Knight's framework, the study analyzed the internationalization at home and crossborder educational activities at the national and institutional levels. At the national level, strategic policy goals and programs were explored. Then, it chose Vietnam National University- Hanoi as a institutional case to learn its institutional strategies on cross border programs and mobility, reputation building, research cooperation.FindingsVietnam has continuously reformed its legal and policy framework of higher education to better integrate into the global higher education market and also to meet the national demand for economic development. Predominant rationale for Vietnam to engage in crossborder programs is for brain development, specifically in the academics and public sector. Meanwhile internationalization at home is driven by (1) international programs and universities and (2) initiative to enhance competitiveness of its higher education institutes. Vietnam hosts different models of international universities, including classical, satellite and co-founded. However, issues and challenges remain, such as poor lack of systematic cooperation and coordination at the governmental level, retaining talents, and finally finances.Originality/valueWritten for the special edition on Internationalization of Higher Education in the Era of SDGs: Asia–Pacific Perspective, the study aims to provide a basis for understanding the current situation of internationalization higher education in Vietnam and how it compares to its partners in the region. This study is unique as it provides a two-layer analysis, at the national and institutional levels capturing macro and micro perspectives in one scene. In addition, this study includes rich empirical data, which was rare in previous literature due to limited access.

PurposeThis paper sought to understand at one time point what was known and not known about the status and use of indicators of internationalization of higher education in Asia–Pacific. More specifically, we identified and mapped publicly available indicators of international of higher education in the region. We examined the ways by which internationalization has been measured and the indicators used, setting up discussion of what may be missing from internationalization efforts.Design/methodology/approachThe primary questions were: (1) What are the current available sources of data in the Asia–Pacific region? (2) How is internationalization measured in publicly available databases and academic materials in Asia–Pacific? To answer these questions, we carried out a structured search of academic and agency literatures. Review of these literatures led us to develop definitions and a classification system by which indicators were classified and examined.FindingsIndicators clustered almost exclusively around measures of student mobility, neglecting a wide range of other possible measures. The authors discuss the implications for internationalization of higher education in the region and draw on existing critical literature to speculate why this might be the case, and what dimensions of internationalization are likely overlooked with such a limited focus.Originality/valueInternationalization of higher education has gained considerable momentum worldwide in recent years, and higher education in the Asia–Pacific region is arguably the world's most dynamic. Despite such dynamism, no research to our knowledge has mapped the way in which internationalization is measured by actors in the region.

Purpose Although faculty members are regarded as one of the main agents of internationalization in higher education (IHE), research has focused on the upper levels of analysis (e.g. country or educational institution) rather than the individual. The purpose of this paper is to draw from social exchange theory (SET) to examine how the perceptions of costs and expected rewards affect faculty members’ choices of international activities. Design/methodology/approach This qualitative study adopted as main methods a review of the literature on IHE and in-depth interviews based on a semi-structured script with an international sample. A sample of 16 researches was selected for interview using the snowball technique of sample selection. Findings The authors verified that faculty may seek internationalization in search of job opportunities, greater social approval, greater autonomy and greater security. On the other hand, temporal, monetary, psychological and physical costs discourage faculty members from seeking international insertion. Based on these tradeoffs, our findings suggest that although the basic tenets of SET do apply, the theory does not explicitly address two issues: the fact that costs and rewards are intricately related, and the apparent mismatch between (short-term) costs and (long-term) expected rewards. Originality/value This study contributes to the IHE literature by highlighting the crucial role of faculty – that is, the level of analysis of the individual – which has been under-researched and by setting out the reasoning that supports the decision of faculty members to seek (higher) international insertion. Furthermore, this study extends SET as a plausible explanation for the self-internationalization decision by scholars.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to count the number of international program accreditations at universities in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan; and second, to understand why Kazakhstan has dramatically more such accreditations. Design/methodology/approach The methodology included identifying agencies working in each country, reviewing data on their websites, and analyzing government documents and relevant literature. Findings Findings were that Kazakhstan has 645 international program accreditations and Kyrgyzstan has 9. Analysis of the reasons for this difference includes strong government support and incentives for internationalization of higher education in Kazakhstan, furthering the government’s goal of becoming one of the world’s 30 most developed economies by 2050; Kazakhstan’s financial wherewithal to support internationalization policies; and its membership in the Bologna Process. In Kyrgyzstan, on the other hand, few rewards result from the costly and time-consuming process of international accreditation; only programs with existing international connections or institutions with large international student populations seem interested. Research limitations/implications Limitations are that the research was based on document analysis and did not include interviews with staff of programs seeking international accreditation. Practical implications One implication, i.e., international program accreditation, while an indicator of program quality, also denotes the financial and infrastructural wherewithal to carry it out, plus the perceived benefits and costs of doing so. Originality/value The value of this research is that it analyzes the reasons for divergence and different results in two countries that, 25 years ago, were part of the same higher education system.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the process of internationalization of higher education (HE) in the United Arab Emirates by examining the development of its HE system, and analyzing the components and results of internationalization.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts a qualitative research methodology to analyze primary evidence from interviews with academics in the UAE, and uses documents and archival research as secondary evidence to provide a comprehensive view of the UAE’s internationalized HE sector. A review of the literature is undertaken to inform discussion and analysis which focuses on the internal and external environments of the UAE. A strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis identifies the benefits and challenges for the UAE of internationalized HE.FindingsThe study finds that internationalization of HE in the UAE has grown rapidly in the last decade, and that the UAE has sought to establish and promote itself as an “education hub” in the Middle East. However, this may subsume the government’s parallel goal of educating its citizenry to the level of skills necessitated by globalization. Three major forces promoting internationalization in the UAE are neoliberalism, quality assurance, and imported internationalization, an approach seeks the prestige conferred by international accreditation that is predominant in the UAE as well as other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member states. An area of concern is the governance of systems to ensure high quality for universities that may be state-owned, privately owned, or international branch campuses. The study concludes that regional integration could provide the way forward for these countries in their internationalization efforts, not by standardizing but by better formulating study programs across the range of state, private and international higher education institutions.Research limitations/implicationsThe study has important implications for HE policy and governance in the development of internationalized HE in the UAE. It provides theoretical perspectives with practical implications, focusing on some of the critical issues in this developing field for HE administrators and practitioners alike. It also has implications for the UAE’s national social values and cultural identity. This may be a reflection of the UAE’s relatively recent unification as a state whose HE system, developed to skill its population, has been overtaken by the imperative to compete in a globalized world. The research is limited by the absence of longitudinal data to review longer-term outcomes.Originality/valueThe UAE, like other GCC countries, is striving to take its higher educational system to a higher level of performance. This study can be considered as one of the very few studies in the area of the internationalization of HE in the UAE. It contributes to the HE literature by identifying factors and circumstances that facilitate, and hinder, the development of internationalization of HE in the UAE. Globalization can be considered as one of the history’s most significant social processes, and the HE sector plays a vital role in the delivery of knowledge and skills to societies, and thus its socio-economic development.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to communicate the positive and challenging aspects of a Master of Education program, as perceived by Chinese students at an Atlantic Canadian university.Design/methodology/approachAssuming a qualitative methodology, 21 Mainland Chinese students participated in individual, paired, and focus group semi-structured interviews. Interviews were member checked. Data were analyzed through content analysis. The findings are discussed using Deardorff’s (2006, 2009) concept of intercultural competence.FindingsStudents perceived the best features of their educational experience to be personable instructors, their enhanced English skills, and practical course-based experiences embedded in the program. The main challenges were social isolation, English language requirements and related assignments, and theoretical expectations of the program.Research limitations/implicationsThis study contains a somewhat small qualitative small sample size (i.e. 21 participants), therein, disabling any generalization of results. In other words, the data findings are unique and non-generalizable beyond the particular research case. However, transferability, which refers to the extent in which the results of an original study can be applied to similar people, contexts, or settings (Lincoln and Guba, 1985), may be applied to the findings if the reader deems the context of this study in alignment with his/her situation.Practical implicationsApproximately, 82 percent of Canadian universities rate internationalization as a top priority, supporting the need for research in this area. An implication of the study is that internationalization of higher education must be more than just the recruitment of international students. Universities have direct and fiduciaries responsibilities to support the academic needs, personal needs of their international students, as well as the intercultural competence of all students, instructors and staff.Originality/valueThere is a plethora of research documenting experiences of international students, in general, but such research is not directly transferrable to the Chinese student. The issues and problems encountered by Chinese international students are unique and should be addressed independently from international students. Moreover, a lot of the research that focuses on Chinese students enrolled in North American universities, predominantly, is conducted within the USA, and such research tends to spotlight the challenges only. In turn, the authors’ research addresses a specialized focus of the international Chinese student in Canada.

Purpose The purpose of the paper is to conceptualize international students’ perception on the internationalization of higher education in China and identify some challenges faced by some of the higher educational institutions (HEIs) in their internationalization practice. Design/methodology/approach This study utilized the qualitative research method, specifically, the researchers employed structured interview for investigation. The population of this research includes 15 international students and five Chinese professors teaching in BNU. Participants’ responses were categorized to provide a better understanding of the subject of study. Findings This study identified some push-pull factors that influenced international students’ decision making to pursue their studies in China. Some of the push factors identified include the high cost of graduate education, unavailability of some academic courses in some students’ home countries, international exposure, and unemployment, whereas the pull factors identified constitute scholarship opportunities, an alliance between BNU and others foreign universities, global job opportunity, universities’ prestige, and ranking, Chinese history and culture, and technological advancement. Finally, the challenges discovered are professors and students’ relationship, language barrier, separation of international and Chinese students, and lack of internship opportunities. Research limitations/implications This study provides an in-depth understanding of the case presented and has outlined some key areas to be improved in the internationalization process of Chinese HEIs. Further studies in this area are encouraged to critically analyze foreign faculty members’ experiences and contributions to Chinese internationalization of HE process in different institutions and provide a substantial framework to help mitigate some of the challenges that will emerge. Originality/value This research collated and addressed the lived experiences and perception on matters relevant for international practices by Chinese HEIs. Researchers have explained the assumptions and theory used in this study to better understanding the issues that emerged.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to increase knowledge of the key drivers, and challenges, of the internationalization of Higher Education (HE), especially in the transitioning economy of Vietnam. Design/methodology/approach – An exploratory qualitative research design used semi-structured interviews. Nine senior institutional leaders from five Vietnamese universities were interviewed. Thematic analysis, informed by the literature, was undertaken on English-translated transcripts. Findings – The findings shared senior HE leader perspectives on how internationalization of HE in Vietnam was being conceptualized and operationalized, as well as insights as to how these processes might be improved. Further research to monitor the success of internationalization processes in Vietnam, and beyond, is recommended. Research limitations/implications – This was an exploratory qualitative study including nine interviews with senior HE leaders from Vietnamese Universities. Exploratory findings only are shared. Originality/value – No previous studies exploring internationalization of HE in Vietnam have been located. Vietnam is a nation in economic transition from a state-based to market-driven economy, and is different culturally, economically and socially, to its Asian neighbors. Internationalizing HE is considered essential to the global integration and development of Vietnam.

PurposeDespite the competitive internationalization of higher education, international students' responses to dissatisfaction (consumer complaining behavior or CCB) are not well understood in New Zealand. While studies show that many factors, including culture, influence CCB, the None‐Action mode in particular has been largely overlooked by researchers. The purpose of this paper is to examine Chinese student's CCB.Design/methodology/approachThe study employed a qualitative exploratory focus group design examining Chinese students' CCB. Data were analyzed in two stages. First, data were coded into various CCB modes. Next, data relating to the specific mode of None‐Action were thematically analyzed. Five key themes for None‐Action were revealed: Futility, Inadequate Information, Fear of Consequences, Complexity, and Internalization.FindingsThis exploratory research found a high level of None‐Action responses. It was apparent that culture was highly influential in participants' CCB responses and that these None‐Action responses had an affective dimension.Research limitations/implicationsUnderstanding None‐Action responses to dissatisfaction among international students in higher education is critical if universities are to avoid adverse funding consequences. There are cultural and personal implications for students and strategic implications for higher education institutions in understanding Chinese students' Non‐Action. The exploratory nature of the research means that it is designed to stimulate thought and debate on how to expand the body of knowledge on this mode of CCB.Originality/valueThe research highlights the importance to higher education institutions of understanding the cultural and service‐specific explanations for Non‐Action as a response to student‐consumer dissatisfaction.