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The current climate change debate puts forest conservation and halting deforestation at the forefront of the social and political agenda. This paper analyzes the relationship between forested area and economic growth for a sample of 19 Latin American countries. The selected region has extensive forested areas, but also high rates of deforestation, which makes it a crucial area for reversing deforestation trends. The Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis for deforestation is tested for the period 1991–2014, taking environmental damage to the forest cover as an indicator, measured through two variables: the forested area per capita and a comparison to the country's total area. The methodology used applied regressions by panel data, using a semiparametric technique, as well as the generalized method of moments quantile-regression. Obtained results support the hypothesis, although the positive effects of economic growth on forestation tends to disappear, as the income levels become higher. More specifically, the quantile regression shows a positive, growing relationship between forested area per capita and economic growth (from a threshold point) that tends to be softer in more forested areas. Meanwhile, the Ushaped relationship supported when the forested area is compared to the total area tends to reach the maximum value. Therefore, the positive effects of economic growth on forestation tend to disappear, this being more especially observed in the most forested areas.

The recent economic crisis has required the bailout of some European States by the so-called Troika, with capital injections accompanied by financial austerity. This paper analyzes econometrically the impact of this support programme on road safety for an original panel data (1995–2015). The findings also corroborate the Kuznets curve hypothesis for traffic accidents in the long term. Regarding the impact of intervention in the short term, despite reductions in safety policy budgets due to austerity, financial support, and related austerity measures might have led to an improvement in road safety, reducing both the number of accidents and fatalities. Therefore, it seems that our result is more linked to the austerity measures than to the financial support given by the Troika.

Speed plays an important role in road safety as it affects accident risk and severity. Among safety policies implemented to control driving speed, speed limits are the most highly developed. Since the 1970′s, numerous studies have focused on the effectiveness of speed limits, but even today there is still no clear consensus as to the impact that raising the speed limit has on traffic fatalities. With the aim of consolidating knowledge on this topic, a meta-analysis has been carried out of a set of econometric studies assessing the effects on traffic fatalities of increasing speed limits in the US. Two sub-samples were obtained, taken from the traffic fatality measures considered by studies (fatality count and fatality rate normalized per vehicle miles traveled), and two approaches were analyzed: rural interstates (where speed limits were increased in 1987 and 1995), and a statewide approach (all roads network). Our findings show that by count traffic fatalities went up on both rural interstates and statewide level, although the effect was higher on rural interstates. In other respects, statewide fatality rates could be improved in relative terms by raising legal speed limits, although the effect would be weak.

This paper presents an overview of the two recent parliamentary elections in Spain, held in December 2015 and June 2016. It also analyzes how the economic crisis, austerity policies and corruption have affected the results of both of these electoral processes. The economic situation has put the traditional Spanish two-party system at risk with the emergence of two new parties, Podemos and Ciudadanos

Higher levels of ozone in the troposphere is a severe threat to both environment and human health. Many countries are concerned about the effects that critical levels of ozone have on them. Countries pollute to satisfy their domestic and external demand (production perspective) and, at the same time, these countries also generate emissions abroad indirectly via their imports and via their domestic production (consumption perspective). Spain is one of the EU countries with the highest pollution records in the emissions of tropospheric ozone precursor gases. A multiregional input-output model (MRIO) allows us to analyze the total emissions embodied in Spanish international trade in 35 sectors within the EU area and the rest of the world. MRIO models, are commonly chosen as they provide an appropriate methodological framework for complete emissions footprint estimates at the national and supranational level The results show that the most polluting sectors involved in Spanish trade are Agriculture, Basic Metals, Coke and Refined Petroleum Production. Some policy recommendations follow these results; for example, a higher number of environmental regulations focused on the Agricultural sector, such as the introduction of codes of good practices in the use of fertilizers and the promotion of cleaner production technologies might lead to less burden to the environment.

Algeria is one of the most important CO2 emitters among developing countries and the third among African countries. It pledged to curb carbon emissions by at least 7% by 2030. However, complying with this target may be a difficult task without compromising economic growth. The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic growth in Algeria, taking into account energy use, electricity consumption, exports and imports. The validity of the EKC hypothesis, throughout the period from 1970 to 2010, is tested by using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag model extended to introduce the break points. Results confirm the EKC for Algeria. Nevertheless, the turning point is reached for a very high GDP per capita value, indicating that economic growth in Algeria will continue to increase emissions. Results also indicate that an increase in energy use and electricity consumption increase CO2 emissions, and that exports and imports affect them negatively and positively, respectively. Therefore, it is necessary to promote renewable energies and energy efficiency policies. Regulatory reforms are needed to facilitate foreign investments with which to carry out these policies. Likewise, it may be appropriate to decrease subsides in energy prices to encourage energy efficiency.

Applying econometric techniques to EU28 panel data and controlling for explanatory variables such as road types, we find that increased truck load capacity does not necessarily aggravate road traffic safety. Specifically, heavy trucks do not seem to be linked with greater numbers of traffic fatalities/accidents, medium trucks appear to be the worst performers in terms of fatalities, and light trucks seem to be the worst for accidents. In summary, our results clarify the complex relationship between truck load capacity and road safety, pointing to the existence of a negative correlation for accidents per capita and an inverse U-shaped curve for fatalities per capita.

This article examines the determinants of traffic generated by Spain’s port authorities, using data from 2003 to 2012. The interest of the study lies on examining the impact of recent legislative measures that have implied an increasing liberalization of port charges. We find that port charges influence the amount of traffic that a port is able to generate, while traffic is also affected by geographical attributes, economic wealth, the extent of industrial activity and population. Our main result is that we find evidence that the legislation of 2003 did not have a significant impact on traffic while the impact of the legislation of 2010 seems to have been stronger. Political conflicts associated to a lack of consensus on the approbation of the 2003 legislation plus a clear decline in tariff freedom wiped out the inter-port competition slightly promoted by earlier laws, versus the 2010 reform featured by a strong political agreement and a flexible port charges framework.

Seville is a city of 700,000 inhabitants in the south of Spain. It is currently the administrative capital of the region of Andalusia. However, Seville was once the most important city in the Spanish Empire, and a glo- bal metropolis when it monopolized trade with ‘the Indies’. Its historical past, its subsequent decline and its traditions (many of them religious) generate a range of perceptions among local society as to what the city should be. After being transformed in the wake of the two World Expositions that were staged in the city in the 20th century, at the beginning of the 21st century a change was proposed to Seville’s planning model that would not clash with its past. This profile seeks to analyze this period and interpret whether these changes and transformations to the city are part of a consciously created city model and to consider any inconsistencies and internal contradictions. The conclusions show that in periods of large-scale change in the city, the starting-point has to be an agreed city model that enables tradition and modernity to exist side by side, and that is based on greater public participation. The city profile of Seville is signif- icant and useful as an exemplary case of a historic city being capable of renewing the relationship between urban space and the citizen.

A translog production function and an extended translog production function with third-order terms are estimated for the 50 Spanish provinces in the period 1985–2006. The results show the existence of comple- mentarity relationships between private physical and human capital. Likewise, they show the existence of decreasing returns of private physical and human capital. However, the direction of the decreasing returns of private physical capital is reversed for a high endowment level of this factor. These results suggest the importance of capitalizing the Spanish economy, since it would increase the effect of human capital upon productivity and may also generate positive externalities.

The goal of this article is to evaluate the impact of the drastic Spanish Penal Code reform on the number of road deaths in Spain and the time that the effects might last. This is achieved by means of multivariate unobserved component models set up in a state space framework estimated using maximum likelihood. In short, with this reform Spain might be considered to be closing the final gap that kept it apart from other developed countries as far as the road accident rate is concerned. We have found two different types of effects on Spanish road traffic fatalities. Initially, a month before the reform was passed there was a 24.7 percent fall in Spanish road deaths. After the Bill had been passed and for the following thirteen months, the reduction stayed at a constant sixteen percent. This reform has reduced Spanish road fatalities by 534 in all between November 2007 and December 2008 and the effects will foreseeably continue during 2009

In addition to public policies aimed at improving the energy efficiency of buildings, EU authorities have also promoted the use of Renewable Energy Sources for heating and cooling uses (RES H&C). This paper analyses the main policy measures implemented in EU-27 countries up to 2009: i.e. subsidies, tax incentives, financial support and feed-in tariffs. Twenty-three Member States (MSs) have developed some of these policy measures. The most widespread measure is the subsidy (22 MSs have implemented these) because from a political point of view, subsidies provide a straightforward approach to promote the use of RES H&C. Secondly, tax incentives have been used for reducing investment costs and making renewable energy profitable. Thirdly, financial incentives and feed-in tariffs have been used sparingly. While financial incentives might be used more extensively for promoting RES H&C if they are accompanied by other policy measures, feed-in tariffs are not likely to be implemented significantly in the future because this measure is not designed for household heat producers.

This article seeks to quantify the effects of the penalty points system driver’s license during the 18- month period following its coming into force. This is achieved by means of univariate and multivariate unobserved component models set up in a state space framework estimated using maximum likelihood. A detailed intervention analysis is carried out in order to test for the effects and their duration of the introduction of the penalty points system driver’s license in Spain. Other variables, mainly indicators of the level of economic activity in Spain, are also considered. Among the main effects, we can mention an average reduction of almost 12.6% in the number of deaths in highway accidents. It would take at least 2 years for that effect to disappear. For the rest of the safety indicator variables (vehicle occupants injured in highway accidents and vehicle occupants injured in accidents built-up areas) the effects disappeared 1 year after the law coming into force.

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the main tax incentives used in the EU-27 member states (MSs) to promote green electricity. Sixteen MSs use tax incentives to promote green electricity simultaneously with other promotion measures, especially quota obligations and price regulation. However, not all available technologies are promoted. For example, six MSs (Germany, Romania, Slovak Republic, Denmark, Sweden and Poland) have included an exemption on the payments of excise duties for electricity when the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources (RES). This tax incentive is the most widely used. Limited tax incentives in personal income tax are available in Belgium, France, Czech Republic and Luxembourg. In corporate tax, tax incentives consist mainly of a deduction in the taxable profit (Belgium, Greece, Czech Republic and Spain). Lower tax rates in VAT are applied in three MSs, France, Italy and Portugal. Only Spain and Italy use effective tax incentives in property tax. As a great diversity of tax incentives has been used to promote green electricity, this adds another difficulty to the EU objective of providing a renewable energy policy framework, but also it offers a useful set of case studies which can be used to inform EU policy development.

This article, examines differences between the behavior of passengers of low-cost and network airlines when choosing their transport mode for travel to airports. It is found that a passenger flying with a low- cost carrier is 6% less likely to take a taxi to the airport, but more than 4% more likely to drive a rented car and 2% more likely to use public transport than a user of a network carrier.