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Tyrosinase (Ty) is a type 3 copper protein involved in the rate-limiting step of melanin synthesis. It is shown that the endogenous Trp fluorescence of tyrosinase from Streptomyces antibioticus is remarkably sensitive to the redox state. The fluorescence emission intensity of the [(Cu(I) Cu(I)] reduced species is more than twice that of the oxygen-bound [Cu(II)-O(2)(2-)-Cu(II)] form. The emission intensity of the oxidized [Cu(II)-OH(-)-Cu(II)] protein (Ty(met)) appears to be dependent on an acid-base equilibrium with a pK(a) value of 4.5 +/- 0.1. The binding of fluoride was studied under pseudo first-order conditions using stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy. The kinetic parameters k(on), K(d), and the fraction of fluorescence emission quenched upon fluoride binding show a similar pH dependence as above with an average pK(a) value of 4.62 +/- 0.05. Both observations are related to the dissociation of Cu(2)-bridging hydroxide at low pH. It is further shown that Ty is rapidly inactivated at low pH and that halide protects the enzyme from this inactivation. All results support the hypothesis that halide displaces hydroxide as the Cu(2)-bridging ligand in Ty(met). The relevance of the experimental findings for the catalytic cycle is discussed. The data are consistent with the data obtained from other techniques, validating the use of fluorescence quenching as a sensitive and effective tool in studying ligand binding and substrate conversion.

The dinuclear copper enzyme tyrosinase (Ty) from genetically engineered Streptomyces antibioticus has been investigated in its paramagnetic half-met form [Cu(I)-Cu(II)]. The cw EPR, pulsed EPR, and hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy (HYSCORE) experiments on the half-met-Ty and on its complexes with three different types of competitive inhibitor are reported. The first type includes p-nitrophenol, a very poor substrate for the monooxygenase activity of Ty. The second type comprises hydroxyquinones, such as kojic acid and l-mimosine, and the third type of inhibitor is represented by toluic acid. The electronic and structural differences of the half-met-Ty form induced at the cupric site by the different inhibitors have been determined. Probes of structural effects are the hyperfine coupling constants of the non coordinating Ndelta histidyl nitrogens. By using the available crystal structures of hemocyanin as a template in combination with the spectroscopic results, a structural model for the active site of half-met-Ty is obtained and a model for the binding modes of both mono- and diphenols could be proposed.

The activity of the type 3 copper enzyme tyrosinase toward 2-, 3-, and 4-fluorophenol was studied by kinetic methods and (1)H and (19)F NMR spectroscopy. Whereas 3- and 4-fluorophenol react with tyrosinase to give products that undergo a rapid polymerization process, 2-fluorophenol is not reactive and actually acts as a competitive inhibitor in the enzymatic oxidation of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa). The tyrosinase-mediated polymerization of 3- and 4-fluorophenols has been studied in detail. It proceeds through a phenolic coupling pathway in which the common reactive fluoroquinone, produced stereospecifically by tyrosinase, eliminates an inorganic fluorine ion. The enzymatic reaction studied as a function of substrate concentration shows a prominent lag that is completely depleted in the presence of L-dopa. The kinetic parameters of the reactions can be correlated to the electronic and steric effects of the fluorine substituent position. Whereas the fluorine electron withdrawing effect appears to control the binding of the substrates (K(m) for 3- and 4-fluorophenols and K(I) for 2-fluorophenol), the k(cat) parameters do not follow the expected trend, indicating that in the transition state some additional steric effect rules the reactivity.

The inhibition of the type-3 copper enzyme tyrosinase by halide ions was studied by kinetic and paramagnetic (1)H NMR methods. All halides are inhibitors in the conversion of l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) with apparent inhibition constants that follow the order I(-) < F(-) << Cl(-) < Br(-) at pH 6.80. The results show that the inhibition arises from the interaction of halide with both the oxidized (affinity F(-) > Cl(-) > Br(-) >> I(-)) and reduced (affinity I(-) > Br(-) > Cl(-) >> F(-)) enzyme. The paramagnetic (1)H NMR of the oxidized enzyme complexed with the halides is consistent with a direct interaction of halide with the type-3 site and shows that the (Cu-His(3))(2) coordination occurs in all halide-bound species. It is surmised that halides bridge both of the copper ions in the active site. Fluoride and chloride are shown to bind only to the low pH form of oxidized tyrosinase, explaining the strong pH dependence of the inhibition by these ions. We further show that p-toluic acid and the bidentate transition state analogue, Kojic acid, displace chloride from the oxidized active site, whereas the monodentate substrate analogue, p-nitrophenol, forms a ternary complex with the enzyme and the chloride ion. On the basis of the experimental results, a model is formulated for the inhibitor action and for the reaction of diphenols with the oxidized enzyme.

The oleD gene has been identified in the oleandomycin producer Streptomyces antibioticus and it codes a macrolide glycosyltransferase that is able to transfer a glucose moiety from UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc) to many macrolides. The glycosyltransferase coded by the oleD gene has been purified 371-fold from a Streptomyces lividans clone expressing this protein. The reaction product was isolated, and its structure determined by NMR spectroscopy. The kinetic mechanism of the reaction was analyzed using the macrolide antibiotic lankamycin (LK) as substrate. The reaction operates via a compulsory order mechanism. This has been shown by steady-state kinetic studies and by isotopic exchange reactions at equilibrium. LK binds first to the enzyme, followed by UDP-glucose. A ternary complex is thus formed prior to transfer of glucose. UDP is then released, followed by the glycosylated lankamycin (GS-LK). A pH study of the reaction was performed to determine values for the molecular pK values, suggesting possible amino acid residues involved in the catalytic process.

Two exocellular nucleases with molecular masses of 18 and 34 kDa, which are nutritionally regulated and reach their maximum activity during aerial mycelium formation and sporulation, have been detected in Streptomyces antibioticus. Their function appears to be DNA degradation in the substrate mycelium, and in agreement with this proposed role the two nucleases cooperate efficiently with a periplasmic nuclease previously described in Streptomyces antibioticus to completely hydrolyze DNA. The nucleases cut DNA nonspecifically, leaving 5'-phosphate mononucleotides as the predominant products. Both proteins require Mg2+, and the additional presence of Ca2+ notably stimulates their activities. The two nucleases are inhibited by Zn2+ and aurin tricarboxylic acid. The 18-kDa nuclease from Streptomyces is reminiscent of NUC-18, a thymocyte nuclease proposed to have a key role in glucocorticoid-stimulated apoptosis. The 18-kDa nuclease was shown, by amino-terminal protein sequencing, to be a member of the cyclophilin family and also to possess peptidylprolyl cis-trans-isomerase activity. NUC-18 has also been shown to be a cyclophilin, and "native" cyclophilins are capable of DNA degradation. The S. antibioticus 18-kDa nuclease is produced by a proteolytic processing from a less active protein precursor. The protease responsible has been identified as a serine protease that is inhibited by Nalpha-p-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone and leupeptin. Inhibition of both of the nucleases or the protease impairs aerial mycelium development in S. antibioticus. The biochemical features of cellular DNA degradation during Streptomyces development show significant analogies with the late steps of apoptosis of eukaryotic cells.

The expression of the melanin operon (melC) of Streptomyces antibioticus requires the chaperone-like protein MelC1 for the incorporation of two copper ions (designated as CuA and CuB) and the secretion of the apotyrosinase (MelC2) via a transient binary complex formation between these two proteins. To investigate whether the copper ligand of tyrosinase is involved in this MelC1.MelC2 binary complex function, six single substitution mutations were introduced into the CuA and CuB sites. These mutations led to differential effects on the stability, copper content, and export function of binary complexes but a complete abolishment of tyrosinase activity. The defects in the tyrosinase activity in mutants were not because of the impairment of the formation of MelC1. MelC2 complex but rather the failure of MelC2 to be discharged from the copper-activated binary complex. Moreover, the impairments on the discharge of the mutant MelC2 from all the mutant binary complexes appeared to result from the structural changes in their apoforms or copper-activated forms of the complexes, as evidenced by the fluorescence emission and circular dichroism spectral analysis. Therefore, each of six copper ligands in Streptomyces tyrosinase binuclear copper sites plays a pivotal role in the final maturation and the discharge of tyrosinase from the binary complex but has a less significant role in its secretion.

The oleandomycin (OM) producer, Streptomyces antibioticus, possesses a mechanism involving two enzymes for the intracellular inactivation and extracellular reactivation of the antibiotic. Inactivation takes place by transfer of a glucose molecule from a donor (UDP-glucose) to OM, a process catalyzed by an intracellular glucosyltransferase. Glucosyltransferase activity is detectable in cell-free extracts concurrent with biosynthesis of OM. The enzyme has been purified 1,097-fold as a monomer, with a molecular mass of 57.1 kDa by a four-step procedure using three chromatographic columns. The reaction operates via a compulsory-order mechanism. This has been shown by steady-state kinetic studies using either OM or an alternative substrate (rosaramycin) and dead-end inhibitors, and isotopic exchange reactions at equilibrium. OM binds first to the enzyme, followed by UDP-glucose. A ternary complex is thus formed prior to transfer of glucose. UDP is then released, followed by the glycosylated oleandomycin (GS-OM).

Clavaminate synthase (CS), a key enzyme in the clavulanic acid biosynthetic pathway, has been purified to electrophoretic homogeneity from Streptomyces antibioticus (Tü 1718), a species that does not produce clavulanic acid. A comparison of the physical and kinetic properties of clavaminate synthase from S. antibioticus (CS3) and the two isozymes from Streptomyces clavuligerus (CS1 and CS2) has been conducted. In oxidative reactions requiring the co-substrates O2, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, and catalytic Fe2+, both CS1 and CS2 catalyze three distinct transformations, the hydroxylation of deoxyguanidinoproclavaminic acid to guanidinoproclavaminic acid, and the cyclization and desaturation of proclavaminic acid to clavaminic acid. We have demonstrated that CS3 from S. antibioticus also catalyzes these three oxidations. The apparent molecular mass of CS3 from matrix-assisted laser desorption mass spectrometry is 35,839 +/- 36 Da. The enzyme is a monomer in solution as determined by gel filtration chromatography. Analysis of the four possible proclavaminic acid diastereomers confirmed the absolute configuration of the substrate to be 2S,3R. Based upon N-terminal sequence comparisons among the three proteins, CS3 possesses the higher degree of homology with the CS1 isozyme from S. clavuligerus. Although previously associated solely with clavulanic acid biosynthesis, we propose these findings and recent precursor incorporation data support the view that clavaminate synthase plays a critical role in the biosynthesis of the clavam metabolites.

Actinomycin synthetase I, which activates the precursor of the chromophore of actinomycin, has been purified nearly 1000-fold from extracts of Streptomyces antibioticus. The enzyme has an M(r) of 45,000 and appears to function as a single polypeptide chain. The formation of the enzyme is repressed when S. antibioticus mycelium is grown on glucose as a carbon source. Several benzoic acid derivatives, including intermediates in the putative pathway for actinomycin biosynthesis, were capable of supporting ATP-pyrophosphate exchange catalyzed by actinomycin synthetase I. Interestingly, three synthetic phenoxaziones also functioned as substrates in the exchange reaction. It proved possible to purify a second enzyme involved in actinomycin biosynthesis, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid 4-methyltransferase, from the same extracts prepared for the purification of actinomycin synthetase I and by similar procedures. Streptomyces lividans, previously shown to contain a silent gene for the enzyme phenoxazione synthase, apparently does not contain a silent pathway for the complete synthesis of actinomycin since neither actinomycin synthetase I nor the methyltransferase could be detected in strains containing a cloned sequence that activates phenoxazione synthase expression.

Recombinant plasmids carrying Streptomyces antibioticus DNA (phenoxazinone synthase plasmids 1.8 and 4.3) have been used as templates in a streptomycete-coupled transcription-translation system. Analysis of the synthetic products from these experiments shows that PHS 1.8 and 4.3 appear to code for polypeptides which are not structurally related, as judged by immunoprecipitability, to the phenoxazinone synthase subunit. 35S-labeled cell extracts of Streptomyces lividans and S. lividans transformed with the phenoxazinone synthase plasmids each contain a protein which is precipitable with antiserum to S. antibioticus phenoxazinone synthase. These proteins have exactly the same electrophoretic mobility as the S. antibioticus phenoxazinone synthase subunit on one-and two-dimensional gels and the peptide maps of the proteins from the S. lividans clones are essentially indistinguishable from the map of the S. antibioticus phenoxazinone synthase subunit. Glycerol-gradient centrifugation of extracts of cells transformed with PHS 1.8 and 4.3 showed that both the large and small phenoxazinone synthase enzyme forms were present. Southern hybridization experiments demonstrated that pIJ2505, a pBR322 derivative containing the phenoxazinone synthase structural gene, hybridized to S. lividans DNA digested with BclI, SphI, SstI, and XhoI. The results obtained are discussed in terms of the hypothesis that the expression of phenoxazinone synthase activity in cells transformed with the PHS 1.8 and 4.3 plasmids results from the activation of an endogenous phenoxazinone synthase gene in S. lividans (and perhaps in other streptomycetes in the case of PHS 4.3) which is normally "silent" or expressed at very low levels.

DNA fragments from the Streptomyces antibioticus genome have been cloned in Streptomyces lividans using the SphI site of the vector, pIJ702. Using a sib selection procedure, transformants were screened for their ability to produce levels of the enzyme, phenoxazinone synthase, which were detectable by enzyme assay. Three clones were obtained by this procedure. The recombinant plasmids from these clones contained inserts of 1.77, 2.45, and 4.28 kilobases in size. The clones and the corresponding recombinant plasmids were, therefore, referred to as PHS 1.8, PHS 2.4 and PHS 4.3. PHS 2.4 produced transformants with significantly higher phenoxazinone synthase specific activities than those observed in comparably grown S. antibioticus. Southern blotting showed that the cloned 2.45-kilobase insert hybridized to a fragment of exactly the same size in an SphI digest of S. antibioticus total DNA. Using a streptomycete-coupled transcription-translation system, PHS 2.4 was shown to code for the synthesis of a protein with the electrophoretic and immunological properties of the phenoxazinone synthase subunit. Thus, the 2.45-kilobase insert represents the structural gene for that subunit. The protein produced by S. lividans transformed with PHS 2.4 was shown to be virtually identical to the S. antibioticus subunit in terms of its electrophoretic mobility, peptide profile, and amino acid composition. It was further observed that cloning of the 2.45-kilobase insert in the orientation opposite to that obtained originally still resulted in high levels of phenoxazinone synthase expression in transformed S. lividans. However, the repression of phenoxazinone synthase synthesis by glucose which has been observed in S. antibioticus was not found when PHS 2.4 was used to transform S. lividans.