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Objective This study aims to determine the correlation between infant and toddler feeding practices in working mothers with the nutritional status of children aged 6–23 months in Depok City. Method This study applied cross-sectional design and cluster sampling technique. The study population was 8772 with a sample of 223 selected respondents. Feeding practices measured by the Guidelines for the Integrated Childhood Illness Management Chart from the Indonesian Ministry of Health, while nutritional status was measured by calculating children's weight-for-height. Results The results indicated that most feeding practices were inappropriate (98.9%) with normal nutritional status in children (80.8%). The results of the statistical analysis showed that there was no significant relationship between feeding practices and nutritional status in infant and toddlers (p = 0.923). Conclusion The results indicate there were other parameters to determine nutritional status, so further analysis needs to be done.

Social norms have been put forward as prominent explanations for the changing labour supply decisions of women. This paper studies the intergenerational formation of these norms, examining how they affect subsequent female labour supply decisions, taking into account not only the early socialization of women but also that of their partner. Using large representative panel data sets from West Germany, results suggest that women with partners who grew up with a working mother are more likely to participate in the labour force, work longer hours, and earn higher labour income. Our study can assess a variety of potential mechanisms for this intergenerational link. It cannot be explained by other confounding patterns. We find no evidence that this finding reflects assortative mating; rather, analysis suggests that the partner’s preferences play a decisive role for the labour supply decision of partnered women. Our results suggest that policy measures supporting the labour force participation of today’s mothers will increase the female labour force participation of the next generation.

Context Employment of the mother is considered to be one of the most important barriers to exclusive breastfeeding (EBF). Aim To study the factors influencing EBF practices among working mothers in Udupi taluk. Methods and material A community-based cross-`sectional study was conducted among breastfeeding mothers employed in any form of occupation having an infant less than six months old (n=137). Interviewer administered structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Statistical analysis used Chi-square test was performed to find the association between different variables and EBF. Results The prevalence of EBF among working mothers was found to be 17.5% although 75% of them had adequate knowledge on EBF and its benefits. Around 52% of the mothers did not receive any maternity leave benefits. Only 11% of mothers were allowed breaks in between working hours but none of the mothers were provided with creches at their workplace. The commonest reason to discontinue EBF was early resumption of work after childbirth. Factors such as educational status of working mother and her husband, occupation of husband, place of delivery, sex of the newborn, frequency of breastfeeding per day, practice of expressing and storing breastmilk before leaving for work and breaks during working hours were found to be statistically significant with EBF practice. Conclusions These findings emphasize the need to guarantee the support to breastfeeding policies at workplace which in turn would motivate working mothers to continue EBF after resuming work.

The present study was planned to identify some of the risk factors of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) in under-five children in a rural part of India.Case-control study.The study was carried out in rural areas of Yavatmal district. A total of 737 cases (under-five SAM children) and an equal number of normal controls were included in the study. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Binary logistic regression was used for multivariate analysis using a hierarchical model.The odds of a child being in the SAM category increased significantly if the family: was below the poverty line, have a kuccha house, have more children in the family, have less rooms in the house, have a working mother, has a mother with a lower level of education, have an unemployed father, did not use any water purification measure, did not always ensure parents washed their hands before feeding a child, did not wash hands with soap and water after defecation, have a father with any addictive habit like tobacco or alcohol consumption, have a maternal height145 cm, have a maternal weight45 kg, have a lower age at marriage for mothers, had an institutional delivery, have the same food utilized more than once in a day, have no age-appropriate vaccination, give prelacteal feeds, have a lower frequency of breast feeding, do not use semisolid food during the weaning period, exclusively breast feed for less than four months or more than six months, had low birth weight, have five or more episodes of illness in the previous year, have ≤3 feeds per day apart from breast milk, and not initiation of breast feeding within 30 min of birth.Risk factors identified in the present study can be addressed through health system interventions. The strongest association was observed with child feeding practices; thus, more emphasis is required in nutritional education and counselling in strategies to fight undernutrition.

Background Balancing work-life and routines of daily life gets complex when a child is chronically ill. Aim This study aimed to examine the QOL of working and non-working mothers caring for children with a chronic illness in Jordan and determine predictors of QOL of working mothers. Design Descriptive comparative cross-sectional design. Method Data from 164 mothers who cared for a child with a chronic disease were collected. The World Health Organization Quality of Life – BREF (WHOQOL-BREF) was used to collect the data on physical, psychological, social relationships, and environment domains. Results The quality of life of working mothers was significantly lower than those of non-working mothers on all domains of WHOQOL-BREF. Mother's working status, monthly income, evaluation of their own health explained 41% of the variance. Social, family and employer support may help them overcome the challenges of caring for a child with a chronic illness and maintain good QOL., quality of life, working mother, Jordan, chronically ill child.

The current study focuses on the conception of work and higher education among ten Israeli Arab women, enrolled in an undergraduate program of early childhood education. This qualitative study aims to explore the gap between women's career development in under-investigated cultures and career development assumptions traditionally reported in the literature. We explored the contextual aspects within Arab society that shape women's career development, as well as their own candid conceptions of their development. The content analysis of the interviews revealed various aspects of a long and arduous journey to the desired goal of becoming an educated working mother. Six domains were identified: studies, interpersonal relations, conflicts and difficulties, resources, decision-making processes, and future perceptions. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.

This study investigates cross-temporal gender differences in the effects of family resources on educational attainment in the Netherlands. Our research question reads: to what extent has the influence of parental socio-economic features, cultural resources and school involvement on the educational attainment of women and men in the Netherlands changed over time? Employing three waves of the Family Survey Dutch Population (N = 6059), we test our hypotheses on the changing impact of parental background characteristics on male–female educational attainment. A general expectation is that all family resources have become more favorable to girls over time. Our results first show that especially in the earlier cohorts the effects of parental educational resources were gender-specific: mother's education affected women's educational attainment most, whereas father's education predominantly influenced men's. Second, our results indicate that only for girls, growing up with a working mother becomes increasingly beneficial over time. Finally, the impact of father's occupational resources seems to lose importance over time faster for boys than for girls.

Synopsis The paper analyses the parallel transformations of citizenship regimes and gender regimes in post-Yugoslav states, analysing the case study of women working in the textile and clothing industry, a traditionally feminised industrial sector in which employment rates have significantly declined in the last twenty years. On the basis of interviews with textile workers and former textile workers living in Leskovac (Serbia), Stip (Macedonia) and Bosanski Novi/Novi Grad (Bosnia-Herzegovina), the paper shows that post-socialist and post-conflict deindustrialisation and subsequent transformations in social citizenship had profound implications when it comes to gender regimes. The overall deterioration of labour and welfare rights in the region had major consequences on women's position as workers and citizens, producing the demise of the “working mother” gender contract which existed during socialist times. The “retraditionalisation” of gender relations in the post-Yugoslav region, therefore, is not only a consequence of nationalist discourses, but is also a direct result of transformations in social citizenship which occurred during the post-socialist transition.

To explore a mother's feeling of attachment and the affects her working status on the attachment relationship with her child, upon ethical clearance from the institutional ethics committee, in-depth interviews of nine participants were conducted. Mothers enrolled were those who resumed the employment within the first year of post-delivery and were having a child up to two years of age. Results revealed that maternal employment itself does not enhance or deteriorate attachment with the child. It is combinations of factors that revolve around it impact on their bond. Overall, maternal integration or the balance of the dual roles of employment and motherhood is critical in the development of a sound and secure attachment between the employed mother and the child.

This article examines the considerations that I (first author [JB]), as a working mother, employed as a manager in Higher Education, faced prior to enroling in part-time doctoral study. An autoethnographical, reflective practice approach is adopted to examine the issues that were central to my deliberations. I draw on a narrative written after my first Ph.D. meeting and entries made prior to enrolment in a reflective journal. Recommendations are made for prospective students to consider prior to deciding to embark upon doctoral study.

Objective Caustic substance ingestion is a public health issue in some underdeveloped countries. Published information on socio-demographic factors related to this problem is scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of socio-demographic factors with caustic ingestion in children. Methods Design: case-control study. Cases were children with caustic substance ingestion who were attended to during 2006 ( n = 94) at a pediatric referral hospital in Guadalajara, Mexico; the controls were a random sample of children who were hospitalized or seen as outpatients in the same pediatric referral hospital ( n = 641). The socio-demographic variables were studied using a validated questionnaire ( Children Nutrition Organization Survey ). Statistics: OR, 95% CI and logistic regression. Results Mean age of the cases was 3.2 years (SD 2.4) and 37.2% of cases were girls. Caustic ingestion occurred at home in 63.8% of cases and at a relative's home in 23.4% of cases. Alkaline products were ingested by 85.1%; containers had no warning labels in 72.3% of cases and no childproof safety caps in 92.6% of cases. The socio-demographic variables associated with caustic ingestion included higher family income, lower educational level of the mother, higher proportion of fathers working as independent professionals, extended family, mother's age Conclusions The observed family risk profile for caustic ingestion was higher family income, young working mother with low educational level, father working as independent professional, and extended family.

Over the last 50 years a shift towards more egalitarian gender role attitudes has been observed in most modern societies, including those in East Asia. This article addresses variations in gender role attitudes among 20- to 55-year-old women and men across highly developed countries. Using comparative survey data from 24 regions the study investigates factors that explain gender role attitudes on the basis of educational attainment, family background, personal experience as working women, and cost-benefit considerations, as well as the influence of cultural climate and structural context. Results show that individuals with a higher level of educational attainment, as well as those who were themselves offspring of a working mother, had a higher propensity to support more egalitarian gender roles. Furthermore, being employed made women more prone to hold rather gender equal role attitudes. Having a child had a ‘traditionalising’ effect among women, but not among men. On the societal level, structural rather than cultural gender equality emerged as the more influential force toward gender role attitudes.

Objective To review the literature and describe the barriers and facilitators to the continuation of breastfeeding for at least 6 months by working women in the United States. Data Sources A search of PubMed, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, ISI, PsychInfo, and ProQuest. Study Selection Twenty studies based on the inclusion criteria and published between January 1, 1995, and January 2006. Data Extraction An ecologic framework, which includes the individual (microsystem), social support and relationships (mesosystem), and the workplace environment (exosystem). Data Synthesis When working mothers possess certain personal characteristics and develop a strategic plan, breastfeeding is promoted. When social support is available and when support groups are utilized, lactation is also facilitated. Part‐time work, lack of long mother‐infant separations, supportive work environments and facilities, and child care options facilitate breastfeeding. Conclusions Health care providers can use the findings of this review to promote breastfeeding among working women by using tactics geared toward the mother, her social network, and the entire community.

Background: The effects of social de terminants on health have been largely studied in men. There has also been a tendency to disregard historical context in studies of inequalities in health. Objective: This study assessed the effects of social determinants on women's health, especially those associated with the radical changes in their lives in the past 50 years, such as increased opportunities for higher education and employment. Methods: Data were examined from 2 health surveys of Norwegian women born either between 1926 and 1935 (“the housewife cohort”) or between 1946 and 1955 (“the working mother cohort”), each cohort having experienced different historical periods of particular social transitions. Results: Health had a social gradient in both the housewife cohort (N = 4546) and the working mother cohort (N = 6322), but somewhat dissimilarly. In both cohorts, self-rated health was poor with less education, lack of employment, and financial difficulties. Not having paid employment was associated with poor health in both cohorts, but contrary to our expectations, more so among the housewife cohort, in whom the association was stronger than in the working mother cohort. Women in managerial and manual occupations married to men higher on the occupational ladder assessed their health more favorably. This occupational position discrepancy suggested that women married to men in lower occupational positions assessed their health more negatively, in both cohorts, with the exception of professional women in the housewife cohort. Conclusion: Although socioeconomic influences on the 2 cohorts examined were considerably different, the fundamental social changes in women's lives in past decades were not reflected in major changes in the social patterning of women's health.

This paper examines two of the decision-making processes following the birth of a child: whether a working mother should continue with her job, and whether the couple should provide the child with formal childcare. Focusing on Padova and its district (North-East Italy), differences in the strategies of Italian and foreign mothers are discussed, controlling for socio-economic status, opinions on women's roles, and family structure, according to the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition. Six to thirty-six months after the birth of a child, the proportion of foreign mothers who are not employed is more than double that of Italian mothers (51% vs. 21%). In addition, 25% of Italian women entrust their children to the care of their parents and in-laws, vs. only 13% of foreign women. Although there are differences in the effects of individual characteristics on participation at work across the two groups, what matters most is the different composition of the Italian and foreign women's groups, especially as regards education, partners’ characteristics and attitudes towards the job market and motherhood. As regards the maximum price a couple is willing to pay for formal childcare, intended to represent parents’ preferences for formal childcare, differences between the two groups are also mainly explained by differences in composition.

In this paper we examine the returns to a portfolio of 29 firms that are perceived as family-oriented. The sample is based on firms awarded the best 100 companies for working mothers in Working Mother Magazine’s annual survey. There is much anecdotal evidence supporting the benefits of these programs, but little evidence relating family-oriented policies to shareholder wealth. We find, based on raw returns, that family-friendly firms do not earn statistically significant excess returns relative to a matched sample or to the S & P 500. Based on risk-adjusted returns, the family-friendly portfolio outperforms the market, but underperforms a matched sample portfolio.

The main focus of this study is to explore the role of working woman into the process of socialization of their children. For this purpose survey design was used and data were collected from randomly selected 50 working mother in Khulna City of Bangladesh. Findings indicate that working mother play a moderate role to socialized their children. The study found on significant percentage difference in the socializing process. Regarding decision making power of the respondent majority (72%) has the medium level of power. In the time management for the children majority (60%) gives 4-6 hours per day. In children education 36 percent respondent herself take care of this where 46 percent respondents depends on the house teacher. By this types of major findings the role of working woman into the process of socialization of their children are presented.

Background: For the past two decades, more and more women in certain European countries, Japan, and the United States are giving birth to their first child at a considerably later age than ever before. It remains unclear as to what extent this age-related general fertility decline is affected by changing social and cultural norms. Method: The Global Centers of Excellence Survey was conducted by Osaka University in Japan (n=5313) in 2009. Multivariate regression analyses were conducted to examine the impact of psychosocial norms, cultural differences, and economic conditions on the perception of childbearing.Results: The findings suggest that a subjective measure of happiness has a significant influence on childbearing. A society with income inequalities between classes discourages childbearing. It is observed that women’s higher labor force participation generates a negative impact on mother-child relations which causes discouragement of childbearing. A higher female labor force participation stemmed from a transition of a traditional society into a modern and market-oriented society discourages childbearing.Conclusions/implications: A woman’s decision to delay childbearing is based on her perception of psychosocial norms with surrounding economic environment and her own value of opportunity in the market oriented society. Childbearing also imposes psycho-economic burdens on the working population under mix of a traditional, patriarchal society, and a modern market oriented framework. Childbearing incentives could be a strategic policy to encourage positive attitudes of childbearing in general and proper welfare policy, labor law(s), employment conditions, and social security system for a working mother with a child or children.

The paper analyses social citizenship in post-Yugoslav states from a gendered perspective. It explores the parallel transformations of citizenship regimes and gender regimes on the basis of the case study of the textile industry, a traditionally “feminised” industrial sector in which employment rates have significantly declined in the last twenty years. By comparing the cases of Leskovac (Serbia) and Stip (Macedonia), the paper shows that transformations in social citizenship had profound implications when it comes to gender regimes. The overall deterioration of labour and welfare rights in the region had major consequences on women’s position as workers and citizens, producing the demise of the “working mother” gender contract which existed during socialist times. The “retraditionalisation” of gender relations in the post-Yugoslav region, therefore, is not only a consequence of nationalist discourses, but is also a direct result of transformations in social citizenship which occurred during the post-socialist transition.

В статье рассматриваются режимы воспроизводства населения в России и Китае в настоящее время. Показано, что, несмотря на сходные низкие показатели рождаемости в этих странах, причины, которые привели к этому, сильно различаются. В Китае это стало следствием жесткой политики планирования семьи и контроля государства над рождаемостью. В России главной причиной выступила стремительная урбанизация и гендерный контракт «работающая мать». В силу этого в России ограничение рождаемости шло не сверху от государства, как в Китае, а снизу – от самих граждан. Китайская политика в области народонаселения показала свою успешность. Цели и методы проведения демографической политики в этих странах являются разными в силу национальной и культурной специфики. Тем не менее, учитывая общее социалистическое прошлое, возможно использование опыта Китая при решении демографических проблем в России.The article regards the modern types of reproduction in Russia and China. It is shown that, in despite of similar low rate of fertility in these countries, the reasons that led to this result are very different. In China, it was the result of a rigid policy of family planning and government control over fertility. In Russia, the main causes were the rapid urbanization and the gender contract "working mother." Accordingly, in the Russian birth control did not go “from above” from the state, as in China, but went “from below” - from the citizens themselves. China's population policy has demonstrated its success. Aims and methods of population policies in these countries are different because of their national and cultural specifics. However taking into account their common socialist past, it is possible to use the experience of China to the solution of Russian demographic problems.

This paper expands on earlier work by Losoncz and Bortolotto (2009), which identified six distinctive groups of working mothers using six waves of the HILDA survey. The focus of this paper is on the labour market behaviour of working mothers in each cluster, and whether reducing working hours or leaving the workforce has benefits for the health and well-being of mothers in each cluster, particularly those experiencing high conflict between work and life. Mothers from clusters with high work-life conflict did not show a higher tendency to exit from paid work than mothers from other clusters. The most likely to exit paid work were mothers who had lower regard for the working mother role. As such, role preference seems to have a greater influence on work decisions. Leaving work or reducing hours did not lead to improved satisfaction with family life or parenthood in any of the clusters, while in some clusters, leaving work or reducing hours improved mental and physical health. Policies that promote greater work-life balance may have a different level of influence on mothers’ workforce participation based on their level of work role identification and particular events in their life course.

To address the epidemiological characteristics and clinical indices that may predict the prognostic profile of meningitis among children.Children admitted to Alexandria fever hospital with clinical diagnosis of meningitis/meningoencephalitis during the period 2002-2003 were recruited for the study. They were subjected to clinical examination as well as CSF bacteriological and serological investigations.Three hundred and ten patients (195 males and 115 females) were included. About 65.2% of them were infected with acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) and 34.8% were infected with aseptic meningitis. In this study, ABM was caused by Haemophilus influenzae (21%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (13.9%), Neisseria meningitidis (14.2%) and other undetermined bacteria (16.1%). ABM showed significant association with age group 1-9 years (66.3%), low socio-economic class (96%), working mother (83.2%), more than two smokers in the family (62.9%) and cold seasons (fall 35.1% and winter 48.5%). Aseptic meningitis showed significant association with age group 3-15 months (100%) and previous immunization (81.5%). The overall case fatality rate was 10.3%; 13.9% for ABM and 3.4% for aseptic meningitis. 7.1% of all survivors developed epileptic attacks. Predictors for death or epilepsy events were high WHO meningitis score (or=9), decreased CSF glucose level (10 mg/dL), more smokers in the family, generalised seizures, infancy (1 year of age) and working mothers.This study highlights the importance of several predictors of the outcome of meningitis in children. It is concluded that quick and simple scoring scales, such as the WHO scale, are not only applicable but valuable prognostic tools for meningitis in children.

The principal question addressed in this article is whether children from one-wage-earner households receive more parental time than those from two-wage-earner households. If so, and if time spent with preschool children influences cognitive achievement, it can be argued that equal educational programs across different school districts do not necessarily result in equal educational opportunity. Although indirect, our evidence suggests that working and nonworking mothers spend virtually the same amount of time with preschool children. One-wage-earner households spend slightly more time with an additional child between the ages of 6 and 12 while devoting less time to teenage sons. The increase in parental time that nonworking mothers devote to a teenage daughter is twice the number of hours that the working mother devotes to her daughter.

This paper presents an economic analysis of child care use by employed women with children under six years of age. Observations of actual child care choices are used to estimate the relative importance assigned by parents to cost, convenience and quality in child care. On the basis of these estimates, the chances that each type of child care arrangement will be used are predicted. Projections of child care use are presented for a range of potential costs, travel times, child-staff ratios, and family circumstances. This study is unique in employing information not only on child care arrangements already used, but also on the alternative arrangements available to individual families. The child care data were collected in a 1977 survey of New York City employees. Overall, the model correctly predicted 78% of the observed child care choices. The results of the analysis show strong effects of cost in child care choice. The demand for day care centers is especially sensitive to user cost; if centers were available free of charge, for example, there is a 65% chance that the average single working mother in the sample would use one. Travel time and child-staff ratios have small but statistically significant effects on the choice of child care arrangements. Weekend work schedules and presence of infants are also important choice factors. Once costs are accounted for, family income has no significant effect on the type of child care chosen.

The medical and lay communities have been somewhat oblivious to the needs of the working mother who continues to breastfeed. This paper offers guidelines on decision making for returning to work, presents a detailed discussion of expressing and storing breast milk, and considers some of the ramifications of nursing and working away from the baby.

This article provides a critique of the research on the working mother. Three major areas of research are reviewed: (1) the effects of maternal employment on preschoolers; (2) the working mother and school age children; and (3) working mothers, identity development, and life satisfaction. It was concluded that the research on maternal employment provided very few definitive answers regarding the effects of a mother's working on her family, children, and herself. Guidelines for conducting future research on maternal employment are presented.

Women are returning to work after the birth of their first infants in increasing numbers. These women need to develop coping strategies for managing multiple roles. A community‐based nursing intervention program can help these women deal with the demands placed on working mothers. This article identifies program implementation, format, and evaluation strategies of one such working mother program.

Many support systems are available for the new mother who chooses to breastfeed. Those women who plan to return to work, however, fid little information or support to help them make the transition. Working and continuing to breastfeed can be a very satisfying experience for mother and child. Nurses are in a unique position to provide the mother with the support and information she will need to continue successfully nursing her baby after resuming her work shedule.

The purpose of this article is to provide a perspective on the dilemmas working mothers face due to the contradictory messages that emanate from both popular child-rearing books and clinical studies. A review of the working mothers' sections of popular child-rearing books, and an interdisciplinary review of research in the area of maternal employment over the last decade was conducted in order to assess current knowledge in the field. Both popular child-rearing books and books for the working mother tend to reflect the cultural norms of appropriate maternal behavior, but rarely include evidence from empirical research. Findings from a review of literature in medicine, psychology, sociology, and education are discussed in relation to effects of maternal employment on children and families. An understanding of recent research regarding maternal employment will enable the pediatrician to better respond to the needs of the working mothers and their families.