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The 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi Earthquake caused a large number of slope failures/landslides over a wide area. In particular, the enormous damage due to slope failures was centered in the towns of Atsuma and Abira which are located to the north of the epicenter. In Atsuma, a seismic intensity (Japan Meteorological Agency) of seven was observed. This was the first time an earthquake of such a large seismic intensity was recorded in Hokkaido, Japan. The geology in this region was mainly formed by three kinds of pyroclastic fall deposits (fa) due to the erupting of Mt. Tarumae, Mt. Eniwa and Shikotsu Caldera. The most serious damage was generated in these tephra stratus. In addition, the large-scale sliding of rock slopes composed of mudstone occurred in the Hidaka-Horonai River Basin in the Horonai district of Atsuma, and its debris flowed into the river and caused the blockage of the river channel. This paper summarizes the earthquake-induced damage to natural slopes, and presents the physical features and the mechanical properties of the collapsed pyroclastic fall deposits distributed over this area.

Formation and evolution of the Pannonian Basin as part of the Mediterranean region was accompanied by eruptions of compositionally diverse magmas during the Neogene to Quaternary. The long-lasting magmatic activity began with some of the most voluminous silicic eruptions in Europe for the last 20 Myr. This paper describes the eruption chronology of this volcanic activity using new, high-quality zircon U-Pb dates, and provides the first estimates on the volume and areal distribution of the volcanic products, characterizes the magma composition and discusses the silicic magmatism in a region, where the continental lithosphere underwent significant extension. A thorough zircon geochronological study was conducted on samples collected from ignimbrites and pyroclastic fall deposits exposed in the Bukkalja Volcanic Field. In-situ LA-ICP-MS analysis on zircon grains provided a fast, cheap and accurate method for such detailed geochronological work, where the volcanic products occur in scattered outcrops that often have poor stratigraphic constraints. The interpreted eruption ages were determined from the youngest zircon age population within the samples and this methodology was validated by new single zircon CA-ID-TIMS dates and sanidine Ar-Ar ages. The volcanism covers about 4 Myrs, from 18.2 Ma to 14.4 Ma and involved at least eight eruptive phases. Within this, four large eruption events were recognized at 14.358 ± 0.015 Ma (Harsany ignimbrite), 14.880 ± 0.014 Ma (Demjen ignimbrite), 16.816 ± 0.059 Ma (Bogacs unit) and 17.055 ± 0.024 Ma (Mango ignimbrite), which are found in areas across the Pannonian Basin and elsewhere in central Europe. Considering all the potential sources of silicic ash found in the Paratethys sub-basins around the Pannonian Basin and along the northern Alps and in central Italy, we suggest that they were probably derived almost exclusively from the Pannonian Basin as shown by zircon U-Pb dates presented in this paper and published comparable age data from several localities. The new eruption ages considerably refine the Early to Mid-Miocene chronostratigraphy of the Pannonian basin, where the extensive volcanoclastic horizons are used as important marker layers. The cumulative volume of the volcanic material formed during this 4 Myr long silicic volcanism is estimated to be >4000 km3, consistent with a significant ignimbrite flare-up event. Zircon crystallization ages indicate magma intrusions and formations of magma reservoirs in the continental crust for prolonged period, likely >1 Myr prior to the onset of the silicic volcanism accompanied with sporadic andesitic to dacitic volcanic activities. Mafic magmas were formed by melting of the thinned lithospheric mantle metasomatized previously by subduction-related fluids and emplaced at the crust-mantle boundary. They evolved further by assimilation and fractional crystallization to generate silicic magmas, which ascended into the pre-warmed upper crust and formed extended magma storage regions. Zircon Hf isotope and bulk rock Sr-Nd isotopic data indicate a sharp decrease of crustal and/or increase of asthenospheric mantle input after 16.2 Ma, suggesting that by this time the crust, and the lithospheric mantle was considerably thinned. This magmatism appears to have had a structural relationship to tectonic movements characterized by strike-slip and normal faults within the Mid-Hungarian Shear Zone as well as vertical axis block rotations, when the two microplates were juxtaposed. Our new zircon ages helped to refine the age of two major block-rotation phases associated with faulting. This volcanism shows many similarities with other rift-related silicic volcanic activities such as the Taupo Volcanic Zone (New Zealand) and the Basin and Range Province (USA).

As an important indicator for landslide hazard and risk assessments, landslide mobility has attracted considerable attention in the literature, yet few studies have investigated seismic earthflows. Therefore, the earthflows induced by the 2018 Mw 7.5 Palu earthquake (Indonesia) and the 2018 Mw 6.5 Eastern Iburi earthquake (Japan) and their mobility characteristics were analyzed. Long-term irrigation for cultivation of wet rice and heavy rainfall produced by Typhoon Jebi introduced substantial moisture into alluvial fans (Palu earthquake) and pyroclastic fall deposits (Eastern Iburi earthquake), respectively, and seismic shaking liquefied these moist deposits, which consequently traveled long distances. Four earthflows that were triggered on very gentle slopes of 1–3° by the Palu event exhibited very high mobility levels (H/L) of 0.0129, 0.01125, 0.0209 and 0.0271 (average H/L = 0.018), whereas 7058 earthflows triggered by the Eastern Iburi event exhibited an average mobility of 0.33. Different liquefied layers were located below or above the low permeability layer, and movement restrictions and complex final flow disturbances could be responsible for obvious mobility differences triggered by the two seismic events. However, the earthflow mobility induced by the Eastern Iburi earthquake was obviously higher than that of coseismic rock landslides worldwide and is described by the following relationship: H/L = 1.46–0.24 × log10 (earthflow_area). Furthermore, the earthflow area, peak ground acceleration (PGA) and slope angle all have increase influences on mobility.

Timing and mechanism of volcanic tsunamis will be a key to understand the dynamics of large-scale submarine explosive volcanism. Tsunami deposits associated with the VEI 7 eruption of the Kikai Caldera at 7.3 ka are found in the Yakushima and Kuchinoerabujima Islands, ~ 40 km south -southeast of the caldera rim. The tsunami deposits distribute along the rivers in their northern coast up to ~ 4.5 km from the river exit and up to 50 m above the present sea level. The tsunami deposits in the Yakushima area consist of pumice-bearing gravels in the lower part of the section (Unit I) and pumiceous conglomerate in the upper part (Unit II). The presence of rounded pebbles of sedimentary rocks, which characterize the beach deposit, indicates a run-up current from the coastal area. The rip-up clasts of the underlying paleosol in Unit I show strong erosion during the invasion of tsunami. Compositional similarity between the pumices in the tsunami deposit and the juvenile materials erupted in the early phase of the Akahoya eruption indicates the formation of tsunami deposit during the early phase of the eruption, which produced the initial Plinian pumice fall and the lower half of the Koya pyroclastic flow. Presence of the dense volcanic components (obsidians and lava fragments) besides pumices in the tsunami deposit supports that they were carried by the Koya pyroclastic flow, and not the pumices floating on the sea surface. Sequential relationship between the Koya pyroclastic flow and the tsunami suggests that the emplacement of the pyroclastic flow into the sea surrounding the caldera is the most probable mechanism of the tsunami.

Co-auteur étranger; International audience; The rhyodacitic 172 ka Lower Pumice 2 (LP2) eruption terminated the first magmatic cycle at Santorini (Greece), producing a proximal < 50 m thick succession of pyroclastic fall deposits, diffusely-stratified to massive ignimbrites and multiple lithic breccias. The eruption commenced with the development of a short-lived precursory eruption column, depositing a < 15 cm blanket of 1–2 cm sized pumice fragments at near vent localities (LP2-A1). The precursor deposits are conformably overlain by a < 30 m thick sequence of reversely-graded/ungraded pumice fall deposits that reflect opening and widening of a point-source vent, increasing mass discharge rates up to 108 kg s− 1, and the development of a 36 km high Plinian eruption column (LP2-A2, A3). The progressive increase in maximum vesicle number density (NVF) in rhyodacitic pumice, from 3.2 × 109 cm− 3 in the basal fall unit of LP2-A2-1 to 9.2 × 109 cm− 3 in LP2-A3, translates to an increase in magma decompression rate from 18 to 29 MPa s− 1 over the course of the initial Plinian phase. This is interpreted to be a consequence of progressive vent widening and a deepening of the fragmentation surface. Such interpretations are supported by the increase in lithic clast abundance vertically through LP2-A, and the occurrence of basement-derived (deep) lithic components in LP2-A3. The increasing lithic clast content and the inability to effectively entrain air into the eruption column, due to vent widening, resulted in column collapse and the development of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs; LP2-B). A major vent excavation event or the opening of new vents, possibly associated with incipient caldera collapse, facilitated the ingress of water into the magmatic system, the development of widespread PDCs and the deposition of a < 20m thick massive phreatomagmatic tuff (LP2-C). The eruption cumulated in catastrophic caldera collapse, the enlargement of a pre-existing flooded caldera and the discharge of lithic-rich PDCs, depositing proximal < 9 m thick lithic lag breccias (LP2-D).

The eruptive history and morphology of Azufral Volcano, Colombia, is explored and analyzed to provide a more complete picture of past eruptions, as well as to infer what eruption styles may occur in the future. Through the use of principal component analysis on Fe-Ti oxides, domes can be correlated to the pyroclastic deposits, enabling the identification of a full eruptive sequence. The findings suggest that eruptive activity at Azufral Volcano is largely explosive, experiencing long periods of quiescence, punctuated by short periods of pyroclastic activity and volcanic debris avalanches. Geomorphology of the dome complex is reinterpreted to better understand the sequence of dome growth. This reinterpretation, along with geochemical analysis and comparison via PCA, allows for reclassification of a major deposit, originally thought to be a juvenile block-and-ash flow, as a volcanic debris avalanche.

A ~ 5 m thick pyroclastic and volcaniclastic sequence, never reported before, comprising a pumice fall deposit has been recognized in a disused quarry near Pollena Trocchia, on the NW slope of Somma-Vesuvius. It is composed of three stratigraphic units: a pumice fall deposit that underlies a pyroclastic density current deposit; they are overlain by a volcaniclastic unit emplaced during a quiescent period of the volcano. The pyroclastic deposits are separated by a horizon of reworked material indicating the emplacement from two distinct eruptive events. The pumice fall deposit has been subject of a detailed investigation. It consists of an ash bed overlaid by a roughly stratified pumice fall layer. The presence of ballistic clasts indicates the proximal nature of this deposit and its stratigraphic position below the Pomici di Base (22 ka) Plinian deposit allows constraining its age to the pre-caldera period (22–39 ky) of activity of Somma-Vesuvius. Samples have been collected in order to perform sedimentological (grain size and componentry), geochemical and isotopic analyses. Samples range from moderately to poorly sorted and show a trachytic composition. The comparison with literature data of compatible deposits vented from Somma-Vesuvius (Schiava, Taurano and Codola eruptions as well as borehole data) allows excluding any correlation with already known Vesuvian products suggesting that the analysed products are ascribable to a new, pre-caldera, explosive eruption. We name this new event “Carcavone eruption”. Based on thickness, maximum lithic clasts and orientation of impact sags, showing a provenance from SE, we envisage the emplacement from a Plinian style eruption vented in the northern sector of the current caldera.

Rapid-moving landslides occurred in many locations during the 2009 Padang earthquake, Sumatra. We interpreted satellite images, performed field surveys, in situ dynamic cone penetration tests, and laboratory analyses for mineralogy and physical and mechanical properties. We found that landslides occurred at 159 locations in an area of 64 km2, and these areas had pumice fall deposits overlying paleosols which were heavily weathered debris flow deposits. These landslides in the investigated area occurred in areas with pumice fall deposits thicker than 350 cm; this depth was probably vital in inducing mechanical instability. The areas had sliding surfaces at the base of the pumice fall deposits, where pumice grains were mixed with the underlying paleosol and had been heavily weathered into halloysite-rich clayey materials by interaction with the percolating water from the ground surface. After the deposition of this pumice fall with mantle bedding, the beds were undercut by subsequent river erosion that loosen their downslope lateral support. This geologic history of pumice fall, weathering, and undercutting is not confined to the affected area but it is common to many volcanic areas, creating the opportunity to predict areas susceptible to earthquake-induced catastrophic debris avalanches.

The Cerro Toledo Formation (CTF), a series of intracaldera rhyolitic dome complexes and their associated extracaldera tephras and epiclastic sedimentary deposits, records the dynamic interplay between volcanic, tectonic, and geomorphic processes that were occurring along the western margin of the Rio Grande rift between major caldera-forming eruptions of the Bandelier Tuff 1.65–1.26 Ma. The Alamo Canyon and Pueblo Canyon Members differ significantly despite deposition within a few kilometers of each other on the Pajarito Plateau. These differences highlight spatial distinctions in vent sources, eruptive styles, and depositional environments along the eastern side of the Jemez Mountains volcanic field during this ca. 400,000 year interval. Intercalated pyroclastic fall deposits and sandstones of the Pueblo Canyon Member reflect deposition with a basin. Thick Alamo Canyon Member deposits of block-and-ash-flow tuff and pyroclastic fall deposits fill a paleovalley carved into coarse grained sedimentary units reflecting deposition along the mountain front. Chemistry and ages of glass from fall deposits together with clast lithologies of sedimentary units, allow correlation of outcrops, subsurface units, and sources. Dates on pyroclastic fall deposits from Alamo Canyon record deep incision into the underlying Otowi Member in the southern part of the Pajarito Plateau within 100 k.y. of the Toledo caldera-forming eruption. Reconstruction of the CTF surface shows that this period of rapid incision was followed by aggradation where sediments largely filled pre-existing paleocanyons. Complex sequences within the upper portion of the Otowi Member in outcrop and in the subsurface record changes in the style of eruptive activity during the waning stages of the Toledo caldera-forming eruption.

International audience; The 184 ka Lower Pumice 1 eruption sequence records a complex history of eruption behaviours denoted by two significant eruptive phases: (1) a minor precursor (LP1-Pc) and (2) a major Plinian phase (LP1-A, B, C). The precursor phase produced 13 small-volume pyroclastic fallout, surge and flow deposits, which record the transition from a dominantly magmatic to a phreatomagmatic eruptive style, and exhibit a normal (dacite to andesitic-dacite) to reverse (andesitic-dacite to dacite) compositional zonation of juvenile pyroclasts in the stratigraphy. Incipient bioturbation and variability in unit thickness and lithology reflect multiple time breaks and highlight the episodic nature of volcanism prior to the main Plinian eruption phase. The Plinian magmatic eruption phase is defined by three major stratigraphic divisions, including a basal pumice fallout deposit (LP1-A), an overlying valley-confined ignimbrite (LP1-B) and a compositionally zoned (rhyodacite to basaltic andesite) lithic-rich lag breccia (LP1-C), which caps the sequence. This sequence records the initial development of a buoyant convective eruption column and the transition to eruption column and catastrophic late-stage caldera collapse events. Similarities in pyroclast properties (i.e., chemistry, density), between the Plinian fallout (LP1-A) and pyroclastic flow (LP1-B) deposits, indicate that changes in magma properties exerted no influence on the dynamics and temporal evolution of the LP1 eruption. Conversely, lithic breccias at the base of the LP1-B ignimbrite suggest that the transition from a buoyant convective column to column collapse was facilitated by mechanical erosion of the conduit system and/or the initiation of caldera collapse, leading to vent widening, an increase in magma discharge rate and the increased incorporation of lithics into the eruption column, causing mass overload. Lithic-rich lag breccia deposits (LP1-C), which cap the eruption sequence, record incremental, high-energy caldera collapse events, whereby downfaulting occurred in discrete jumps, resulting in variable magma discharge rates and the development of a fissure vent system.

Oppenheimer crater is a floor-fractured crater located within the South Pole–Aitken basin on the Moon, and exhibits more than a dozen localized pyroclastic deposits associated with the fractures. Localized pyroclastic volcanism on the Moon is thought to form as a result of intermittently explosive Vulcanian eruptions under low effusion rates, in contrast to the higher-effusion rate, Hawaiian-style fire fountaining inferred to form larger regional deposits. We use Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera images and Diviner Radiometer mid-infrared data, Chandrayaan-1 orbiter Moon Mineralogy Mapper near-infrared spectra, and Clementine orbiter Ultraviolet/visible camera images to test the hypothesis that the pyroclastic deposits in Oppenheimer crater were emplaced via Vulcanian activity by constraining their composition and mineralogy. Mineralogically, we find that the deposits are variable mixtures of orthopyroxene and minor clinopyroxene sourced from the crater floor, juvenile clinopyroxene, and juvenile iron-rich glass, and that the mineralogy of the pyroclastics varies both across the Oppenheimer deposits as a whole and within individual deposits. We observe similar variability in the inferred iron content of pyroclastic glasses, and note in particular that the northwest deposit, associated with Oppenheimer U crater, contains the most iron-rich volcanic glass thus far identified on the Moon, which could be a useful future resource. We propose that this variability in mineralogy indicates variability in eruption style, and that it cannot be explained by a simple Vulcanian eruption. A Vulcanian eruption should cause significant country rock to be incorporated into the pyroclastic deposit; however, large areas within many of the deposits exhibit spectra consistent with high abundances of juvenile phases and very little floor material. Thus, we propose that at least the most recent portion of these deposits must have erupted via a Strombolian or more continuous fire fountaining eruption, and in some cases may have included an effusive component. These results suggest that localized lunar pyroclastic deposits may have a more complex origin and mode of emplacement than previously thought.

We present the first geochemical data (major and trace elements, as well as Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes) on volcanic rocks from the Tepoztlan Formation in the central Transmexican Volcanic Belt. The Tepoztlan Formation is up to 800 m thick and comprises a wide range of primary volcanic rocks (lavas, pyroclastic density current deposits, pyroclastic fall deposits), and their secondary reworked products due to mass flow (lahars) and fluvial processes. Magnetostratigraphy combined with K/Ar and Ar/Ar geochronology suggests an age of Early Miocene (23–19 Ma) for this Formation. Lava flows, pyroclastic rocks, dykes and volcanic clasts range from basaltic andesite to rhyolite, with a clear dominance of andesites and dacites. All samples are subalkaline and hy-normative. These rocks show homogeneous REE patterns with LREE enrichment and higher LILE concentrations with respect to HFSE, notably the typical negative anomaly of Nb, Ta, and Ti, suggesting a subduction-related magma genesis. Major and trace element concentrations show that either assimilation of heterogeneous continental crust or crustal recycling by subduction erosion and fractional crystallization are important processes in the evolution of the Tepoztlan Formation magmas. Isotopic compositions of the Tepoztlan Formation samples range from (87Sr/86Sr) t = 0.703693 to 0.704355 and (143Nd/144Nd) t = 0.512751 to 0.512882, falling within the mantle array. All geochemical characteristics indicate that these rocks originated from a heterogeneous mantle, modified and evolved through assimilation of country rock and fractional crystallization in the upper crust.

Co-auteur étranger; International audience; Cubilche Volcanic Complex (Imbabura Province, Ecuador) includes three morphologically well-preserved eruptive centers: in increasing size, Cunrru Dome Complex (3300 m above sea level, m asl), Panga Ladera (3420 m asl) and Cubilche (3836 m asl). As this complex is poorly known, we conducted a volcanological study of its evolution by combining geomorphological, lithostratigraphic, radiocarbon (14C), and petrological analyses, along with eruption size determinations. Cunrru Dome Complex shows an eastward-opening scarp formed during a dome collapse event that emplaced a small-volume debris avalanche deposit and a pumice-rich layer from an accompanying directed explosion. The higher Panga Ladera edifice is breached towards the north, and the emplacement of the resulting debris avalanche deposit was also accompanied by a blast-forming eruption of ash and pumice. The post-collapse vent subsequently produced dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) that built a low cone. The Cubilche eruptive center comprises old and young edifices. The Old Cubilche edifice emitted lavas from a summit crater and flank vents before being partly destroyed during a flank failure event associated with an explosive eruption that produced a widespread pyroclastic density current deposit dated at ca 44 ka and an associated pyroclastic fall deposit. The Young Cubilche cone grew inside the Old Cubilche avalanche crater during ~14–19 ka over five eruptive episodes that included early effusive eruptions, a dome growth period that terminated with a PDC that emplaced scoria flow deposits at ca 29.6 ka, an explosive eruption at ca 26.3 ka, and final Strombolian activity emitting more mafic products. As the adjacent Imbabura Volcanic Complex erupted in early Holocene times and the two complexes seem to share common reservoirs and plumbing systems, we cannot fully discard a possible reactivation at Cubilche. Other more short-term hazards are debris flows and landslides potentially triggered by heavy rain fall and/or seismic events.

The 2360 BP eruption of Mount Meager, Canada featured an explosive subplinian onset resulting in dacitic fallout tephra and associated pumiceous pyroclastic flow deposits, followed by the effusion of dacite lava and the deposition of a thick sequence of block and ash flow deposits. Fall deposits are distributed to the NE of the vent onto a rugged, deeply incised landscape. The central axis of deposition is ~ 063° Az; the lateral margins of the fall deposit are massive to unbedded whereas deposits underlying the plume axis feature complex bedding relationships. We present componentry and granulometry data for eight outcroppings of the fall deposit (four on plume axis and four off plume axis). Vertical cross-sections, based on surface outcrops and drill core logs from local commercial drilling programs, are used to relate the accessory lithics to their source depth in the underlying subvolcanic basement. These combined datasets inform on the dynamics of this explosive phase of the eruption including variations in column height, eruption intensity, atmospheric conditions, and depth to fragmentation front. The lateral variations within the fall strata reflect the effects of the prevailing atmospheric conditions on the form and dispersal pattern of the subplinian plume. Vertical variations in granulometry and componentry of the fall deposits are used to track temporal changes in eruption intensity and column height and the transient influence of the jetstream on the dispersal pattern of the plume. Lastly, vertical variations in lithic componentry, combined with our knowledge of the subsurface geology, are used to quantitatively track the deepening of the fragmentation front. Our computed results show that the fragmentation front migrated from ~ 640 m to ~ 1160 m below the vent over the course of the 2360 BP Mount Meager eruption.

Alluvial fans and terraces develop in diverse regions responding to different tectonic and climatic conditions. The Motozintla basin is located in the State of Chiapas, southern Mexico and has an E–W orientation following the trace of the left-lateral Polochic Fault. The evolution of the Motozintla basin and the alluvial plain is related to several factors, such as fault movement, intense erosion by hydrometeorological events, and anthropogenic activity. This study presents the geomorphology of the alluvial plain that between the villages of Motozintla and Mazapa de Juarez exposes 31 alluvial fans, 5 hanging terraces and 13 ramps. Fourteen of these alluvial fans have been truncated by the Polochic fault, exposing maximum uplifts of ~ 12 m. The internal structure of truncated fans consists of single massive beds (monolithologic fans) or stacked beds (polygenetic fans). The fans' stratigraphy is made of debris flow deposits separated by paleosols and minor hyperconcentrated flows, fluviatile beds, and pyroclastic fall deposits. The reconstruction of the stratigraphy assisted by radiocarbon geochronology suggests that these fans have been active since late Pleistocene (25 ka) to the present. This record suggests that at least 10 events have been recorded at the fan interior during the past ~ 1840 years. One of these events at 355 ± 65 14 C yrs. BP (cal yrs. AD 1438 to 1652) can be correlated across the fans and is likely associated with an extreme hydrometeorologic event. The presence of a 165 ± 60 14 C yrs. BP (cal yrs. AD 1652–1949) debris flow deposit within the fans suggests that movement along the Polochic fault formed the fans' scarp afterwards. In fact, a historic earthquake along the fault occurred east of Motozintla on July 22, 1816 with a M w of 7.5–7.75. Recent catastrophic floods have affected Motozintla in 1998 and 2005 induced by extreme hydrometeorological events and anthropogenic factors. Therefore, scenarios for Motozintla involved several types of mass movement processes that pose a serious hazard and threat to the inhabitants of the region.

This work characterizes the geomorphological features and describes the factors controlling earthquake-induced landslides of pyroclastic fall deposits. Statistical analysis of the distribution of landslides caused by the 1968 M7.9 Tokachi-Oki earthquake and prior high-magnitude earthquakes was conducted using 0.5-m resolution Light Detection and Ranging data and aerial photographs. Most of the 1968 co-seismic landslides were shallower than 3.5 m and occurred on sliding surfaces with slope angles of less than 34° (average angle of 26.4°). The fitting relationship between the height and length of the 1968 co-seismic landslides was H = 0.226L with a modal apparent friction angle of 12-14°, indicating high mobility. The 1968 co-seismic landslide crowns were primarily located near ridge crests. The hillslope morphology and seismic Arias intensity direction greatly influenced the direction of the earthquake-induced landslides, which were predominantly oriented in a northwest-north-east direction. These earthquake-induced landslides occurred in a cluster where fine marginal portions of Towada-Hachinohe pyroclastic flow deposits, i.e., To-H (pfl), thinly (

Volume estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption were re-analysed using new ash thickness data and new methods, giving a range of possible volumes for the different eruption phases. Volume calculations include ash fall extrapolation and caldera size approximations, as well as volume estimates from mass eruption rates and eruption duration, to find the most likely range of volumes consistent with the different methods and possible eruption dynamics. The results give a total volume of about 41 ± 4 km3 DRE, made of 23 ± 3 km3 DRE ash fall and 18 ± 6 km3 DRE pyroclastic flows. The ash fall volume can be further divided into 11 ± 2 km3 DRE Plinian ash fall and 12 ± 4 km3 DRE co-ignimbrite, making the Plinian ash fall larger than previously assumed, and more intense due to a higher mass eruption rate of 2 × 109 kg/s.

The Permian Ora Formation (277–274 Ma) preserves the products of the Ora caldera ‘super-eruption’, Northern Italy. The stratigraphic architecture of the exceptionally well preserved intra-caldera succession provides evidence for caldera collapse at the onset of the eruption, a multiple discharge point, fissure eruption style, and progressive, incremental caldera in-filling by numerous pyroclastic flow pulses within the caldera. The ignimbrites of the Ora Formation are voluminous (> 1290 km3), crystal-rich (~ 25 to 55%), and ubiquitously welded. The Ora Formation has been divided into four members (a–d), which also define the principal eruption phases. The eruption proceeded in four main stages: (1) early caldera collapse and vent opening, producing locally distributed, basal co-ignimbrite lithic breccia (member a); (2) vent clearing, which produced the eutaxitic, lithic-rich ignimbrite and minor thin ground and ash-cloud surge deposits (member b); (3) waxing and steady eruption, which produced the dominant eutaxitic, coarse-crystal-rich ignimbrite, with local lithic-rich and fine-crystal-rich ignimbrite and minor surge deposits (member c); and (4) waning eruption, recorded by the eutaxitic, fine-crystal-rich ignimbrite, with local lithic-rich ignimbrite deposits (member d). The incremental filling and late-stage outpouring of pyroclastic material from the caldera is recorded by vertical and lateral lithofacies deposit variation and some correlation between stratigraphic sections. These findings reveal a structure to the outwardly monotonous, > 1300 m thick, intra-caldera fill and thinner (

The 2010 eruption of Merapi was the second most deadly in the historic record of this volcano, claiming over 380 lives. By relating the observations of this eruption with detailed examination of deposit distribution, stratigraphy and sedimentology, a reconstruction of the properties of the pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) is presented, including the valley controlled block-and-ash flows (BAFs) and widespread, energetic pyroclastic surges. The distribution, volume and mobility characteristics of all types of PDC during the eruption sequence show evidence for levels of intensity unseen since the large-scale 1872 and 1930 eruption phases, especially during the climactic events of October 26 and November 5. Many tephra falls interbedded with PDC units show that most dome-collapse events occurred along with and between explosive vulcanian eruptions. The 2010 eruption produced very long-runout BAFs, reaching 16.1 km in the Kali Gendol on November 5. This runout could be explained by its large-volume (20 million m 3 ), around 10 times that of previous Merapi BAFs during the last 130 years. Major avulsion of these dense BAFs to form overbank deposits became more common through the eruptive sequence as the valley was progressively filled with successive PDC deposits. Spreading avulsed BAFs were a particular hazard downstream of ~ 10 km where the landscape is less dissected. Less clear, however, is why pyroclastic surges extended up to 10 km from the vent on November 5 and > 6.4 km on October 26. These expanded much farther from BAF margins (~ 2 km) than ever seen before at Merapi. In one location they were decoupled from valley-centered BAFs with high momentum, traveling initially laterally across steep valley systems, before draining downslope. At this site, on the western side of the upper Gendol at around 3 km from source, surge decoupling was apparently exacerbated by upstream collision and deflection of high-flux, hot and gas-rich BAFs against the cliffs of Gunung Kendil. The 1.4 km-long cliff face was impacted directly for the first time in 2010 events, and may have been responsible for the formation of larger than normal turbulent ash-rich clouds above BAFs. These results imply that future eruption events under the present summit and upper flow-path configuration are also highly likely to generate wide dispersal pyroclastic surges and extreme hazard, especially now that dense forest has been destroyed on the upper southern slopes of the volcano.

Two contrasting Neoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary successions of ca. 600 m thickness were recognized in the Hamid area, Northeastern Desert, Egypt. A lower Hamid succession consists of alluvial sediments, coherent lava flows, pyroclastic fall and flow deposits. An upper Hamid succession includes deposits from pyroclastic density currents, sills, and dykes. Sedimentological studies at different scales in the Hamid area show a very complex interaction of fluvial, eruptive, and gravitational processes in time and space and thus provided meaningful insights into the evolution of the rift sedimentary environments and the identification of different stages of effusive activity, explosive activity, and relative quiescence, determining syn-eruptive and inter-eruptive rock units. The volcano-sedimentary deposits of the study area can be ascribed to 14 facies and 7 facies associations: (1) basin-border alluvial fan, (2) mixed sandy fluvial braid plain, (3) bed-load-dominated ephemeral lake, (4) lava flows and volcaniclastics, (5) pyroclastic fall deposits, (6) phreatomagmatic volcanic deposits, and (7) pyroclastic density current deposits. These systems are in part coeval and in part succeed each other, forming five phases of basin evolution: (i) an opening phase including alluvial fan and valley flooding together with a lacustrine period, (ii) a phase of effusive and explosive volcanism (pulsatory phase), (iii) a phase of predominant explosive and deposition from base surges (collapsing phase), and (iv) a phase of caldera eruption and ignimbrite-forming processes (climactic phase). The facies architectures record a change in volcanic activity from mainly phreatomagmatic eruptions, producing large volumes of lava flows and pyroclastics (pulsatory and collapsing phase), to highly explosive, pumice-rich plinian-type pyroclastic density current deposits (climactic phase). Hamid area is a small-volume volcano, however, its magma compositions, eruption styles, and inter-eruptive breaks suggest, that it closely resembles a volcanic architecture commonly associated with large, composite volcanoes.

Two meter-scale pyroclastic levels are interbedded within the early Miocene succession of the Estancia 25 de Mayo (Patagoniense transgression) and Santa Cruz formations in the foreland Austral (or Magallanes) Basin, Argentina. The Lower Pyroclastic Level (LPL) is a tabular body interbedded within offshore marine deposits, laterally continuous for 30 km and varying in thickness from few centimeters to around 4 m. Grain-size grades from coarse to extremely fine ash with upward-fining along with a northeastern-fining trends. Structureless fine to very fine tuffs dominate and rare parallel laminations are the only tractive sedimentary structures. The Upper Pyroclastic Level (UPL) lies within low energy fluvial deposits and is laterally discontinuous, and it is composed by lenticular bodies reaching a maximum of 15 m thick and 100 m wide, with a concave-up base and a plane top. Grain-size range is similar to the LPL but it coarsens upward. The lower portion of the UPL shows parallel lamination, current ripple lamination and mud drapes with large pumice lapilli and plant debris, whereas the upper portion shows parallel lamination and trough cross-stratification. Both pyroclastic levels are composed mainly of pumice grains and glass shards with minor proportions of quartz and plagioclase crystals and lithic fragments. The LPL shows no mixing with epiclastic material whereas the UPL shows an upward increase in epiclastic material, and an upward increment in the scale of cross-bedding. The large thickness in relation to the possible emission center and the content of plant debris of the LPL does not suggest a direct, submarine, ash-fallout origin. The LPL is interpreted as a deposit of hyperpycnal-flows generated at the coastal zone when tephra-laden rivers plunged into the ocean. Large amounts of well preserved plant debris support the hypothesis of a terrestrial source of the sediments. The UPL is entirely composed of tractive deposits, so an ash fallout origin is disregarded. This, together with the lenticular shape and the alluvial plain origin of the encasing sediments, suggests accumulation within fluvial channels. Cycles of upper-flow-regime parallel lamination, current-ripple lamination and mud drapes at the lower portion, suggest short-lived turbulent flows that initially filled semi-abandoned channels. They were followed by sheet floods and channel reactivation, expressed by large-scale cross-bedding. The low degree of particle mixing observed in both levels is explained by the inability of streams to erode the substrate as they are suddenly over-saturated with pyroclastic sediments during and after the eruption. The grain-size distribution of the LPL and geochemical data indicate a contemporaneous volcanic source located to the west/southwest in the Andean ranges, where the South Patagonian Batholith is presently located. Fil: Cuitiño, José Ignacio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Geociencias Basicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Geociencias Basicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires; Argentina Fil: Scasso, Roberto Adrian. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Geociencias Basicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Geociencias Basicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires; Argentina

During the current (1995–present) eruptive phase of the Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, voluminous pyroclastic flows entered the sea off the eastern flank of the island, resulting in the deposition of well-defined submarine pyroclastic lobes. Previously reported bathymetric surveys documented the sequential construction of these deposits, but could not image their internal structure, the morphology or extent of their base, or interaction with the underlying sediments. We show, by combining these bathymetric data with new high-resolution three dimensional (3D) seismic data, that the sequence of previously detected pyroclastic deposits from different phases of the ongoing eruptive activity is still well preserved. A detailed interpretation of the 3D seismic data reveals the absence of significant (> 3 m) basal erosion in the distal extent of submarine pyroclastic deposits. We also identify a previously unrecognized seismic unit directly beneath the stack of recent lobes. We propose three hypotheses for the origin of this seismic unit, but prefer an interpretation that the deposit is the result of the subaerial flank collapse that formed the English's Crater scarp on the Soufriere Hills volcano. The 1995–recent volcanic activity on Montserrat accounts for a significant portion of the sediments on the southeast slope of Montserrat, in places forming deposits that are more than 60 m thick, which implies that the potential for pyroclastic flows to build volcanic island edifices is significant.

Tlaloc is a late Pleistocene stratovolcano located NE of Mexico City. It is the northernmost volcano of the N–S Sierra Nevada Volcanic Range, which consists from north to south of Tlaloc, Telapon, Iztaccihuatl, and Popocatepetl volcanoes. Tlaloc has always been considered the oldest (and extinct) volcano of the Sierra Nevada Volcanic Range. Recent field data revealed that Tlaloc was very active during late Pleistocene through a series of explosive eruptions. One of these eruptions produced the Multilayered White Pumice (MWP) a rhyolitic pyroclastic sequence. The eruption began with a 24-km high Plinian column MWP-F1 that was dispersed to the NE by prevailing winds. It was interrupted by fountaining of the column with the generation of a pyroclastic density current that emplaced MWP-S1 layer. Then, followed five unstable sub-Plinian columns (MWP-F2 to F6) that reached altitudes between 16 and 19 km. Fall deposits as a whole are 1 m thick at 12 km from the vent, cover a minimum area of 577 km2 for a total volume of 4.68 km3 (DRE 1.58 km3). The eruption ejected a total mass of 3.45 × 1012 kg at different mass discharges. The last sub-Plinian column (MWP-F6) collapsed and produced dense pyroclastic density currents that deposited pumiceous pyroclastic flows (MWP-PF) following main ravines to the north and east of the vent. These density currents filled gullies with 23 m-thick deposits at a distance of 12 km from the vent totaling a minimum DRE volume of 0.2 km3. Pyroclastic flow deposits charred tree trunks that yielded an age of 31,490 + 1995/− 1595 yr B.P. that closely date the age of the eruption. Rain during this phase of the eruption generated syn-eruptive lahars (MWP-DF). Post-eruptive lahars (MWP-ED) finally swept the volcano flanks. The MWP deposits consist of abundant white pumice (up to 96 vol.%), rare gray pumice, cognate lithics, accidental altered lithics, xenocrysts. White and gray pumice clasts contain phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase, sanidine, biotite, rare Fe–Ti oxides, monazite, zircon and apatite. Xenocrysts are represented by plagioclase, microcline, orthoclase and quartz likely coming from a deeper plutonic body. Both pumices have a rhyolitic composition (74.98 ± 1 wt.% SiO2 in water free basis) representing one of the most acidic products of Tlaloc and the entire Sierra Nevada Volcanic Range. The rhyolitic liquid was likely extracted from a mush-like plutonic body reaching the minimum predicted vesicularity values for Plinian fragmentation for which the triggering mechanism of the MWP eruption is attributed to the high viscosity of the magma that provoked overpressure of the magmatic system. The parameters studied suggest that eruption behavior evolved from Plinian to sub-Plinian eruptive columns over time due to conduit dynamics rather than variations in magma properties of the MWP products.

The most recent major eruption event of the Zao volcano comprised a series of phreatic eruption episodes on 15 and 19 February, 22 August, and 27–28 September 1895, with several precursory vulcanian eruptions during February–July 1894. All were generated at the Okama crater lake located inside the Umanose caldera. The eruption products consist mainly of hydrothermally altered ash with altered blocks, except for ash from 1984. The eruption deposits of 1895 are divided lithologically into six layers (1–6). Comparison of the document with the lithofacies of deposits shows that layers 1, 2, 3–4, and 5–6 were correlated respectively with eruption episodes of 15 February (episode 1), 19 February (episode 2), 22 August (episode3), and 27–28 September (episode 4). During these four episodes, ca. 0.5%, 0.5%, 1.5%, and 98% of the total mass of the products had been discharged. Based on lithologic, stratigraphic, granulometric, and component analyses and on distributional features for these layers, the following depositional mechanisms were inferred. Layers 1, 3, and 4 were formed mainly from their related small pyroclastic density currents, whereas layer 2 resulted mainly from a small pyroclastic fall. In contrast, layers 5 and 6 are larger-scale near-vent pyroclastic fall deposits from ash clouds and eruption clouds, which might have included some juvenile fragments. The three early episodes in 1985 led to the climactic episode of 27–28 September. Furthermore, the andesitic magma chamber at

Multiple, highly erosive base surges of the Table Rock Complex tuff ring (TRC2), Oregon, produced dune-bedded deposits with crest to crest bedform wavelengths up to 200 m, which are amongst the largest ever recognized in the deposits of pyroclastic density currents. Here we use bedform wavelength, surmounted obstacles, and a large chute-and-pool feature to estimate near-source velocities (118–233 m s − 1 ), lower-bound velocities at radial distances of 1.6, 2 and 4.7 km from source (34, 29 and 20 m s − 1 , respectively), and corresponding column collapse heights (up to 2.8 km). This paper represents one of the few studies that attempt to quantify flow characteristics, such as emplacement velocities at different distances from source, eruption column collapse height, and eruptive energy, based on deposit characteristics.

Subaqueous ash flows are gravity currents consisting of a mixture of sea water and ash particles. Also called volcaniclastic turbidity currents (VTCs), they can be generated because of remobilization of pyroclastic fall deposits, which are emplaced into the sea around a volcanic island, as well as far away, during an explosive eruption. The VTC upper part is the turbulent transport system for the flow, whereas the viscous basal one is the depositional system. Typical sequences of VTC deposits are characterized by cross-laminations, planar and convolute laminations, and massive beds, which reflect the stratified nature of the flow. Here, the analysis of some VTC hydraulic parameters is presented in order to depict flow behavior and sedimentation during deposition. A reverse engineering approach is proposed, which consists of calculating hydraulic parameters by starting from deposit features. The calculated values show that a VTC is homogeneously-turbulent for most of the thickness, but is viscous at its base. First, cross-laminations are directly acquired over the rough pre-existing seafloor, then planar or convolute laminations aggrade over the newly formed substrate. Finally, fine-grained suspended particles gently settle and cap the flow deposit.

Volcan Popocatepetl (Mexico) erupted ~ 14,100 14 C yr BP (~ 17,000 cal yr BP) producing the Tutti Frutti Plinian Eruption (TFPE). The eruption tapped two different silicic magmas (GT and MT) that mixed just prior and during the eruption, resulting in the collapse of the reservoir and formation of a caldera. Two fall deposits (GT and MT) and two series of pyroclastic flows (P01 and P02) were emplaced during the eruption. These were studied at 91 sites, where thicknesses were measured, and at many sites the five coarsest lithics observed in each unit were measured. Several samples from deposits were sieved for component analysis. The eruption began with intermittent, short lived eruptions that deposited the GT unit at proximal sites around the volcano. Next, the main Plinian phase of the eruption started, and the MT unit and a pyroclastic flow were deposited to the northwest of the present-day cone. Overall, ~ 3 km 3 of magma were erupted. The pyroclastic flow within MT separates two fall units characterized by different pumice color and lithic content. During deposition of the lower unit (milky pumice) eruptive intensity reached 3 × 10 8 kg s − 1 , producing a Plinian column 37 ± 2 km in height. After emplacement of the pyroclastic flow, a lithic-rich upper unit (orange pumice) was deposited with a peak intensity of 5 × 10 8 kg s − 1 , producing a Plinian column 44 ± 2 km in height. Lithics in the TFPE vary from only volcanic (~ 5 vol.%) in GT, to volcanic, granodiorite, and metamorphic (up to 50 vol.%) in MT. The shift in components and lithic content was produced by the collapse of the reservoir. We suggest that the reservoir was over-pressured because of mixing between GT and MT magmas, and then relaxed when all of GT, and part of MT magma were tapped, triggering collapse. The characteristics of mixing were elucidated by studying banded pumice and mixed populations of crystals found in pumice from both units. In addition, the occurrence of An-rich plagioclase, Mg-rich pyroxene, and Cr-rich magnetite crystals revealed intimate mixing of more mafic magma with MT.

A subvertical cross section of a maar–diatreme volcano is exposed in the wall of the A.D. 2000 caldera on Miyakejima Volcano. The maar, Suoana, is one of the lateral vents of this volcano and it was inferred to be formed in the 7th century. The subvertical wall of the A.D. 2000 caldera truncated the Suoana maar crater at its center revealing the near comlete cross section of this small maar–diatreme volcano. Exposed in the cross section are a 400 m wide maar crater, an associated tuff ring with a maximum thickness of 20 m, a diatreme extending vertically to a depth of about 220 m from the floor of the maar crater, and a feeder dike connected to the base of the diatreme. The depth of the diatreme structure is about 260 m from the original ground surface. The outline of the diatreme resembles an upward-opening funnel with an almost vertical wall below 560 m asl and an upward flaring wall above 560 m asl. Coarse grained volcanic breccia fills the diatreme, the deposits of which can be divided into 6 units based on lithological and structural characteristics. The upper half of the diatreme is filled with landslide deposits, mainly derived from the surrounding crater wall. The bottom of the diatreme is occupied by massive explosion breccia. Some coherent blocks were detached from the wall of the diatreme and preserved in the diatreme fill. The Y-shaped cross-sectional geometry of the Suoana diatreme is the result of a combination of an underground subsidence in the lower part of the diatreme and the surface landslide in its upper part. The inwardly-inclined stratification of pyroclastic rock units and development of many small faults in the diatreme-filling breccia indicate successive collapse and deformation of these materials within the diatreme during the eruption. The upper part of the diatreme was formed by the landslides of the crater wall induced by the subsidence of the crater floor. Discharge of tephra from the bottom of the diatreme caused infill subsidence, which induced sliding of the inner wall of the crater. As a result, the topographic diameter of the crater became much larger than that of the diatreme itself. The tephra ring surrounding the crater consists mainly of pyroclastic fall deposits.

Montana Pelada is a basaltic Pleistocene tuff ring located in the SE of Tenerife and it is composed of two edifices each with its distinct internal depositional distribution. A detailed stratigraphic analysis was carried out and ten facies were recognized. Deposits interpretation has revealed that water/magma ratio changes controlled the eruptive evolution, distinguishing three main stages of the eruption. Pyroclastic density currents were formed during the initial phreatomagmatic stages depositing the proximal facies, and transformed into turbulent dry surges during the second stage, indicating a reduction in the water/magma ratio. After deposition of these surges, the opening of an N–S fracture drove the eruption northwards creating a new edifice. The new hydrological conditions allowed the input of phreatic water, which resulted in high proportion of accidental lithics within characteristic of the deposits, increasing the water/magma ratio and reducing the fragmentation degree as can be recognized in the third stage. The evolution of the second tuff was similar, starting with radial-diluted pyroclastic surges and finishing with base surges deposits, suggesting lower water/magma ratio and higher fragmentation degree. Whereas the south cone originates dry pyroclastic surges and many tuff facies, northern one does not go beyond the deposition of a laminated tuff.

Products of the latest eruptions from the Valles caldera, New Mexico, consist of the El Cajete Pyroclastic Beds and Battleship Rock Ignimbrite, a sequence of pyroclastic fall and density current deposits erupted at ~ 55 ka, capped by the later Banco Bonito Flow erupted at ~ 40 ka, and collectively named the East Fork Member of the Valles Rhyolite. The stratigraphy of the East Fork Member has been the subject of conflicting interpretations in the past; a long-running investigation of short-lived exposures over a period of many years enables us to present a more complete event stratigraphy for these eruptions than has hitherto been possible. The volume of rhyolitic magma erupted during the 55 ka event may have been more than 10 km3, and for the 40 ka event can be estimated with rather more confidence at 4 km3. During the earlier event, plinian eruptions dispersed fallout pumice over much of the Valles caldera, the southern Jemez Mountains, and the Rio Grande rift. We infer a fallout thickness of several decimeters at the site of the city of Santa Fe, and significant ash fall in eastern New Mexico. In contrast, pyroclastic density currents were channeled within the caldera moat and southwestward into the head of Canon de San Diego, the principal drainage from the caldera. Simultaneous (or rapidly alternating) pyroclastic fallout and density current activity characterized the ~ 55 ka event, with density currents becoming more frequent as the eruption progressed through two distinct stages separated by a brief hiatus. One early pyroclastic surge razed a forest in the southern caldera moat, in a similar manner to the initial blast of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens. Ignimbrite outflow from the caldera through the drainage notch may have been restricted in runout distance due to steep, rugged topography in this vicinity promoting mixing between flows and air, and the formation of phoenix clouds. Lavas erupted during both the ~ 55 and ~ 40 ka events were largely confined to the caldera moat. Any future rhyolitic eruptions of similar magnitude in the southern or western parts of the Valles caldera will likely affect similar areas.

International audience; The Puy de Dôme volcano is a trachytic lava dome, about 11,000 y old. New pyroclastic layers originating from the volcano itself were discovered covering the summit and the flanks of the volcano. These pyroclastic layers do not fit with the previous interpretation, assuming a non-explosive dome-forming eruption. The tephra display pyroclastic surge features and exhibit fresh trachytic lapilli, basement lithics, allogeneous basaltic lava and clinker fragments requiring an open vent eruption. This ultimate eruption occurred after a period of rest, long enough for vegetation to develop on the volcano, as evidenced by carbonized plant fragments. Radiocarbon dating of some of these fragments gave an age of c.10,700 y also suggesting a significant rest duration.

Three volcano-stratigraphic units were identified at Brava Island in the Cape Verde Archipelago on the basis of field relationships, geologic mapping and 40Ar/39Ar and U–Th ages. The Lower Unit comprises a 2-to-3 Ma-old submarine volcanic sequence that represents the seamount stage. It is composed of nephelinitic/ankaramitic hyaloclastites and pillow lavas, which are cut by abundant co-genetic dikes. Plutonic rocks of an alkaline–carbonatite complex, which intruded the submarine sequence 1.8 to 1.3 Ma ago, constitute the Middle Unit. A major erosional surface developed between 1.3 and ~ 0.25 Ma. The post-erosional volcanism recorded in the Upper Unit started 0.25 Ma ago and is dominated by phonolitic magmatism. This phase is characterised by explosive phreato-magmatic and magmatic activity that produced block and ash flow, surge, and pyroclastic fall deposits and numerous phreato-magmatic craters. Effusive events are represented by lava domes and coulees. One peculiarity of Brava is the occurrence of carbonatites in both the plutonic complex and the post-erosional phase as extrusive volcanics. The intrusive carbonatites are younger than those occurring on Fogo, Santiago and Maio islands. Young (Upper Pleistocene to Holocene) extrusive carbonatites occurring in the late stages of volcanism are unknown in other Cape Verde islands. The occurrence of pillow lavas and hyaloclastites above the present sea level (up to 400 m) and raised Upper Pleistocene beaches indicates continuous uplift of Brava since the seamount stage. By dating raised marine markers, uplift rates were estimated at between 0.2 and 0.4 mm/a. The evolution of Brava was controlled by faults with directions similar to those described for Fogo, suggesting a common stress field. A detailed geological map (1/25,000) of Brava is presented.

Pyroclastic flows represent the most hazardous events of explosive volcanism, one striking example being the famous historical eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii (AD 79). Much of our knowledge of the mechanics of pyroclastic flows comes from theoretical models and numerical simulations. Valuable data are also stored in the geological record of past eruptions, including the particles contained in pyroclastic deposits, but the deposit characteristics are rarely used for quantifying the destructive potential of pyroclastic flows. By means of experiments, we validate a model that is based on data from pyroclastic deposits. The model allows the reconstruction of the current's fluid-dynamic behaviour. Model results are consistent with measured values of dynamic pressure in the experiments, and allow the quantification of the damage potential of pyroclastic flows.

Subaqueous sediment density currents have variable flow structures, depending on particle size and volumetric concentration. They form both in ocean basins and in volcanic districts, where subaqueous density currents are generated by collapse of slope and primary pyroclastic material entering the sea, respectively. A particular type of such flows is represented by volcaniclastic turbidity currents, which form by the subaqueous remobilization of primary pyroclastic deposits. In this work, a fluid dynamic model of volcaniclastic turbidity currents is presented and applied to the currents that generated the Craco (Southern Italy) volcaniclastic deposits. The deposits consist of thick laminated to massive beds, which formed from the remobilization of thin fine-ash pyroclastic fall deposits, in an area far away from the original volcanic source. Our model is based on the sedimentological features of the deposits and particle physical characteristics. It allows the calculation of velocity, thickness and Reynolds number of the currents. Furthermore, a relationship between the current thickness, laminae thickness and paleo-slope angle is obtained, which allows to evaluate the thickness of the primary pyroclastic fallout deposits. Our model can be useful for obtaining an estimation of the primary distal ash dispersal by the characteristics of the associated subaqueous volcaniclastic deposits.

Based on the stratigraphic record of the deposits, analysis of previous works, historic archives, and eyewitness accounts the 1913 eruption of Volcan de Colima was reconstructed. The eruption started in 17 January and peaked in 20 January, 1913. It occurred in three main phases: 1) An opening phase with the generation of Merapi-type pyroclastic flows (units F1, F2, F3) and a pyroclastic surge (S1), 2) A vent-clearing phase with strong explosions that produced Vulcanian-Soufriere-type pyroclastic flows (F4) and a pyroclastic surge (S2) which destroyed the summit dome decompressing the magma system, and 3) a Plinian phase with the establishment of a ∼ 23 km high column dispersing a fallout (C1) to the NE followed by the collapse of the column that generated a pyroclastic surge (S3) and 15-km long pumice-rich pyroclastic flows (F5). After the eruption, remobilization of the pyroclastic material generated lahars in main gullies around the crater. Fallout C1 blanketed an area of ∼ 191,318 km2 covering the cities of Guzman, Guadalajara, and Saltillo (Coahuila) located at 725 km from the source. It had a volume of 1.4 km3 (0.57 km3 DRE = Dense Rock Equivalent). The total volume of pyroclastic flow and surge deposits was 0.26 km3 (0.07 km3 DRE) giving a total volume of the eruption of 1.66 km3 (0.64 km3 DRE). The Plinian column lasted 4.6 h with a total mass of 1.5 × 1012 kg and a mass eruption rate of 9.02 × 107 kg/s. The column height and the ejected magma volume indicate that the 1913 eruption had a VEI = 5 being the largest event in the historical record of Colima Volcano. Juvenile scoria and pumice consisted of Pl > Opx > Cpx > Hbl + accessory titanomagnetite + Ap and Ol with reaction rims. Chemistry of juvenile scoria and pumice samples is andesitic very homogeneous (58.3 ± 0.5 wt.% SiO2) and similar to the 1818 juvenile products (58.9 ± 0.2 wt.% SiO2). The presence of banded scoria, olivine phenocrysts with reaction rims, and trace element variations strongly suggest that the 1913 eruption was caused by a magma mixing event.

Cerro Machin is a dacitic tuff ring located in the central part of the Colombian Andes. It lies at the southern end of the Cerro Bravo–Cerro Machin volcanic belt. This volcano has experienced at least six major explosive eruptions during the last 5000 years. These eruptions have generated pyroclastic flows associated with Plinian activity that have traveled up to 8 km from the crater, and pyroclastic flows associated with Vulcanian activity with shorter runouts of 5 km from the source. Today, some 21,000 people live within a 8 km radius of Cerro Machin. The volcano is active with fumaroles and has shown increasing seismic activity since 2004, and therefore represents a potentially increasing threat to the local population. To evaluate the possible effects of future eruptions that may generate pyroclastic density currents controlled by granular flow dynamics we performed flow simulations with the TITAN2D code. These simulations were run in all directions around the volcano, using the input parameters of the largest eruption reported. The results show that an eruption of 0.3 km 3 of pyroclastic flows from a collapsing Plinian column would travel up to 9 km from the vent, emplacing a deposit thicker than 60 m within the Toche River valley. Deposits >45 m thick can be expected in the valleys of San Juan, Santa Marta, and Azufral creeks, while 30 m thick deposits could accumulate within the drainages of the Tochecito, Bermellon, and Coello Rivers. A minimum area of 56 km 2 could be affected directly by this kind of eruption. In comparison, Vulcanian column-collapse pyroclastic flows of 0.1 km 3 would travel up to 6 km from the vent depositing >45 m thick debris inside the Toche River valley and more than 30 m inside the valleys of San Juan, Santa Marta, and Azufral creeks. The minimum area that could be affected directly by this kind of eruption is 33 km 2 . The distribution and thickness of the deposits obtained by these simulations are consistent with the hazard map presented by INGEOMINAS (Geological Survey of Colombia) in 2002. The composite map of the simulated flow deposits suggests that after major explosive events such as these, the generation of lahars is probable.

article The Okataina Volcanic Centre (OVC) contains the northeasternmost caldera complex in onshore Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), New Zealand, sited largely within the Taupo Rift. Pyroclastic fall deposits and ignimbrites deposited in the Bay of Plenty coast area between 420 and 625 ka were probably erupted from OVC, and these provide a maximum age for the centre. The earliest ignimbrite for which there is good evidence for eruption from OVC is the c.550 ka Quartz-biotite Ignimbrite, exposed to the west of Lake Okataina and to SE of OVC. This ignimbrite probably correlates with one of the early ignimbrites found in the Kawerau geothermal wells, and is large enough to have been accompanied by caldera collapse. It was followed by extensive rhyolitic explosive eruptions of the Murupara Subgroup, culminating with eruption of the Matahina Ignimbrite at c.325 ka. This c.160 km 3 (magma volume) eruption was accompanied by caldera collapse to form the southern part of the present day Okataina caldera complex. A long duration sequence of rhyolite lavas and pyroclastics was then erupted on the southern and western sides of OVC, before eruption of the >100 km

article i nfo Article history: Sedimentation and welding processes of the high temperature dilute pyroclastic densitycurrents and fallout erupted at 7.3 ka from the Kikai caldera are discussed based on the stratigraphy, texture, lithofacies characteristics, and components of the resulting deposits. The welded eruptive deposits, Unit B, were produced during the column collapse phase, following a large plinian eruption and preceding an ignimbrite eruption, and can be divided into two subunits, Units Bl and Bu. Unit Bl is primarily deposited in topographic depressions on proximal islands, and consists of multiple thin (b 1m )flow units with stratified and cross- stratified facies with various degrees of welding. Each thin unit appears as a single aggradational unit, composed of a lower lithic-rich layer or pod and an upper welded pumice-rich layer. Lithic-rich parts are fines-depleted and are composed of altered country rock, fresh andesite lava, obsidian clasts with chilled margins, and boulders. The overlying Unit Bu shows densely welded stratified facies, composed of alter- nating lithic-rich and pumice-rich layers. The layers mantle lower units and are sometimes viscously deformed by ballistics. The sedimentarycharacteristics of Unit Bl such as welded stratified orcross-stratified facies indicate that high temperature dilute pyroclastic density currents were repeatedly generated from limited magma-water interactions. It is thought that dense brittle particles were segregated in a turbulent current and were immediately buried by deposition of hot, lighter pumice-rich particles, and that this process repeated many times. It is also suggested that the depositional temperature of eruptive materials was high and the eruptive style changed from a normal plinian eruption, through surge-generating ex- plosions(UnitBl),intoanagglutinate-dominatedfallouteruption(UnitBu).Onthebasisof fielddata,welded

The Cretaceous Kusandong Tuff, Korea, is a thin (1–5 m thick) but laterally extensive (~ 200 km) silicic ignimbrite emplaced in a fluviolacustrine basin adjacent to a continental volcanic arc. The tuff has been used as an excellent key bed because of its great lateral continuity and unique lithology, characterized by the virtual absence of juvenile clasts and an abundance of quartz and feldspar crystals (up to 55–73 vol.%). The tuff is mostly massive and ungraded and locally shows crude internal layering, basal inverse grading and near-top normal grading of crystals, either erosional or non-erosional lower surfaces, and flat-lying to imbricated grain fabrics. Fragile intraformational clasts of mudstone and tuff are also included. These features provide only ambiguous information on the properties of the responsible pyroclastic density currents: i.e. whether they were dense and laminar or dilute and turbulent. The overall lateral continuity and sheet-like geometry of the tuff suggests, however, that the transport system of the currents was highly expanded, dilute, and turbulent. A plug-flow or slab-flow model cannot explain the origin of crude internal layering, imbricated grain fabrics, and the high crystal content, which is most likely the result of vigorous sorting processes within a dilute and turbulent current. Features indicative of deposition from a dense and laminar transporting medium are locally present, suggesting that a dense and laminar depositional system could develop locally at the base of the dilute and turbulent transport system. The virtual absence of juvenile clasts in the tuff is interpreted to be due to rapid ascent, sudden decompression, and full fragmentation of silicic magma into fine glass shards and crystals. Scarcity of basement-derived accidental components together with the absence of pumiceous fallout deposits beneath the tuff is interpreted to be due to shallow-level fragmentation of magma followed by immediate generation of pyroclastic density currents from shallow-level blasts at the onset of eruption. The eruption occurred through multiple vent sites in a short period of time, producing a seemingly single but actually composite ignimbrite unit. Such an eruption was probably possible because of a regional tectonic event within the basin or in its vicinity. It is proposed that a composite ignimbrite with the characteristics of the Kusandong Tuff can be an exemplary product of syntectonic volcanism that can provide an insight into the interpretation of structural and stratigraphic evolution of a sedimentary basin.

Volcanic activities can create cataclysmic hazards to surrounding environments and human life not only during the eruption but also by hydrologic remobilisation (lahar) processes after the cessation of eruptive activity. Although there are many studies dealing with the assessment and mitigation of volcanic hazards, these are mostly concentrated on primary eruptive processes in areas proximal to active volcanoes. However, the influence of volcaniclastic resedimentation may surpass the impacts of primary eruptive activity in terms of both extent and persistence, and can ultimately result in severe hazards in downstream areas. Examination of the volcaniclastic successions of non-marine Pliocene–Holocene sedimentary basins in Japan has revealed hydrological volcaniclastic sedimentation in fluvial and lacustrine environments hundreds of kilometres from the inferred source volcano. Impacts on these distal and often spatially separated basins included drastic changes in depositional systems caused by sudden massive influxes of remobilised pyroclastic material. Typical volcaniclastic beds comprise centimetre- to decimetre-thick primary pyroclastic fall deposits overlain by metre- to 10s of metres-thick resedimented volcaniclastic deposits, intercalated in sedimentary successions of non-volcanic provenance. The relatively low component of primary pyroclastic fall deposits in the volcaniclastic beds suggests that: 1) potential volcanic hazards would be underestimated on the basis of primary pyroclastic fall events alone; and 2) the majority of resedimented material was likely derived from erosion of non-welded pyroclastic flow deposits in catchment areas rather than remobilisation of local fallout deposits from surrounding hillslopes. The nature, distribution and sequence of facies developed by distal volcaniclastic sediments reflect the influence of: 1) proximity to ignimbrite, but not directly with the distance to the eruptive centre; 2) ignimbrite nature (non-welded or welded) and volume; 3) temporal changes in sediment flux from the source area; 4) the physiography and drainage patterns of the source area and the receiving basin, and any intervening areas; and 5) the formation of ephemeral dam-lakes and intra-caldera lakes whose potential catastrophic failure can impact distal areas. Models of the styles and timing of distal volcaniclastic resedimentation are thus more complicated than those developed for proximal settings of stratovolcanoes and their volcaniclastic aprons and hence present different challenges for hazard assessment and mitigation.

Large-scale ignimbrite eruptions from rhyolitic caldera volcanoes can trigger geologically instantaneous changes in sedimentary systems over huge areas by either burying existing environments or overloading them with vast quantities of unconsolidated particulate material. The post-eruption readjustment of the landscape to such perturbations is one of the most dramatic processes in physical sedimentology, exemplified here by the 1.8 ka Taupo eruption in the central North Island of New Zealand. This eruption generated voluminous fall deposits, then climaxed with emplacement of a c. 30 km 3 non-welded ignimbrite over a near-circular area of c. 20 000 km 2 . Approximately 90% of the area, but The headwaters of many of the North Island's largest rivers were impacted by both the primary pyroclastic fall and flow material. Large-scale post-eruption remobilisation of this material, coupled with the re-establishment of fluvial systems, occurred in a distinct sequence as recorded by the evolution of sedimentary facies in different sub-environments. Following an initial period dominated by mass flows, re-establishment of fluvial systems began with the headward erosion of box canyons through the ponded ignimbrite deposits, a process often associated with the break-out of temporary lakes. Aggradational streams developed in these channels rapidly evolved from shallow, ephemeral, sediment-laden outbursts associated with flash flood events to deeper, permanent braided rivers, before declining sediment yields led to retrenchment of single thread rivers and a return to pre-eruption gradients and bedloads years to decades later. Typically the modern profile of many streams and rivers follow closely their pre-eruption profiles, and incision and erosion is overwhelmingly confined to the deposits of the eruption itself. Although the general remobilisation pattern is similar for all impacted river systems, detailed studies of the Waikato, Rangitaiki, Mohaka, Ngaruroro and Whanganui catchments show that the relative timing and scale of each eruption response phase differs between each catchment. These reflect differences in catchment physiography and hydrology, and the volume and type of pyroclastic material deposited in each. Ultimately, the landscape response reflects the relative spatial distributions of, and the volumetric ratios between, the volumes of pyroclastic debris, water, and accommodation space in the basin (cf. Kataoka and Manville, this volume).

Images obtained by the MESSENGER spacecraft have revealed evidence for pyroclastic volcanism on Mercury. Because of the importance of this inference for understanding the interior volatile inventory of Mercury, we focus on one of the best examples determined to date: a shield-volcano-like feature just inside the southwestern rim of the Caloris impact basin characterized by a near-central, irregularly shaped depression surrounded by a bright deposit interpreted to have a pyroclastic origin. This candidate pyroclastic deposit has a mean radius of ~ 24 km, greater in size than the third largest lunar pyroclastic deposit when scaled to lunar gravity conditions. From the extent of the candidate pyroclastic deposit, we characterize the eruption parameters of the event that emplaced it, including vent speed and candidate volatile content. The minimum vent speed is ~ 300 m/s, and the volatile content required to emplace the pyroclasts to this distance is hundreds to several thousands of parts per million (ppm) of the volatiles typically associated with pyroclastic eruptions on other bodies (e.g., CO, CO2, H2O, SO2, H2S). For comparison, measurements of the exsolution of volatiles (H2O, CO2, S) from basaltic eruptive episodes at Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, indicate values of ~ 1300–6500 ppm for the terrestrial mantle source. Evidence for the presence of significant amounts of volatiles in partial melts derived from the interior of Mercury is an unexpected result and provides a new constraint on models for the planet's formation and early evolution.

The 151 ka Sutri Formation, erupted from the Vico Volcano, Central Italy, represents a caldera forming eruptive sequence consisting of associated pyroclastic fall and ignimbrite deposits and voluminous coarse, proximal lithic, spatter and pumice-rich breccia facies. After an initial limited Plinian fallout phase (Sutri A) and a partial eruption column collapse event that generated a small volume pyroclastic flow (Sutri B), the later stages of the Sutri eruption produced a southerly-dispersed lithic clast-rich breccia (Sutri C) that grades vertically into a fines poor ignimbrite (Sutri D). Sutri C is interpreted to be a co-ignimbrite lag breccia involving an element of lateral flow produced during vent widening. Vent widening in the south presumably occurred in response to vent wall rock instabilities and increased magma discharge rate during the early Plinian phase that destroyed a large portion of the southern side of the pre-existing Vico stratovolcano/shield edifice. The vertical gradation into an overlying fines poor ignimbrite (Sutri D) reflects changing source conditions at the vent, a progressive increase in magma discharge rate and cessation of vent-widening activity. A succeeding, more extensive and complex association of contemporaneous proximal lithic-rich and spatter-rich breccias that are distributed radially around the present day caldera (Sutri E4) are also considered. No stratigraphic relationship exists between the Sutri E4 breccia facies and the lower breccia facies (Sutri C) due to limited outcrop. Three subdivisions of Sutri E4 are recognised based on field analysis, grainsize studies and petrographic characteristics. All occur at the same stratigraphic level radially around the caldera and are distinguished as separate facies from Sutri C and D based on componentry: Sutri E4 (sbx) — spatter-rich breccia (north–east); Sutri E4 (lsbx) — boulder size lithic clast-rich breccia with associated spatter component (southeast–south) and Sutri E4 (flsbx) — spatter-rich breccia with associated lithic clast component (southwest–west). Mixtures of dense, boulder size lithic clasts, spatter and pumice clasts were most likely ejected up along a widening conduit in the north as well as through newly created, radially distributed fissures formed by steadily increasing magma discharge rate in response to progressive collapse of the magma chamber roof into the chamber. Eruption column collapse occurred and lithic, spatter and pumice rich co-ignimbrite breccias were emplaced radially around the vent (Sutri E4 (sbx, lsbx) signalling the onset of caldera collapse, shortly followed after by emplacement of the Tufo rosso a scorie nere (Sutri E4 (flsbx) and E5) and final caldera collapse. This study is concerned with the mechanism responsible for mixing of large variably vesiculated spatter, highly vesiculated pumice and abundant lithic clasts preserved in both these proximal breccias (i.e. in the conduit and/or eruption column or during transport and emplacement) and considers the implications for the eruption styles produced. The juvenile clast types are mixed in each breccia facies together with voluminous quantities of conduit wall rock lithic clasts. We concluded that they were generated contemporaneously within a single volcanic conduit that likely widened over time into concentrically distributed fissures. The degree of vesiculation and resulting morphology of the juvenile clasts likely reflect variations in magma rise rate whereby fast magma rise rate or faster than bubble nucleation and coalescence produced spatter and slower magma rise rates promoted bubble growth and coalescence producing pumice.

The general characteristics of seismic signals produced by pyroclastic flows (generated by either the collapse of a lava dome or an eruptive column) and lahars at Volcan de Colima, Mexico are discussed. The paper concentrates on the 2004–2006 activity associated with and following the extrusion of andesitic block-lava in October–November 2004. It is shown that the duration of the broad-band seismic records of pyroclastic flows lasts a few minutes while the duration of seismic records of lahars continues for tens of minutes or hours. The spectra of seismic records produced by pyroclastic flows are characterized by lower peak frequencies (around 3–4 Hz) than for lahars (around 6–8 Hz). This difference in the frequency content together with the difference in the duration of seismic signals allows early diagnostic of the events in real time.

Large silicic explosive eruptions are the most catastrophic volcanic events. Yet, the intratelluric mechanisms underlying are not fully understood. Here we report a field and laboratory study of the Kos Plateau Tuff (KPT, 161 ka, Aegean Volcanic Arc), which provides an excellent geological example of conduit processes that control magma vesiculation and fragmentation during intermediate- to large-scale caldera-forming eruptions. A prominent feature of the KPT is the occurrence of quite unusual platy-shaped tube pumice clasts in pyroclastic fall and current deposits from the early eruption phases preceding caldera collapse. On macroscopic and SEM observations, flat clast faces are elongated parallel to tube vesicles, while transverse surfaces often occur at ~ 45° to vesicle elongation. This peculiar pumice texture provides evidence of high shear stresses related to strong velocity gradients normal to conduit walls, which induced vesiculation and fragmentation of the ascending magma. Either an increasing mass discharge rate without adequate enlargement of a narrow central feeder conduit or a developing fissure-like feeder system related to incipient caldera collapse provided suitable conditions for the generation of plate tube pumice within magma volumes under high shear during the pre-climactic KPT eruption phases. This mechanism implies that the closer to the conduit walls (where the stronger are the velocity gradients) the larger was the proportion of plate vs. conventional (lensoid) juvenile fragments in the ascending gas–pyroclast mixture. Consequently, plate pumice clasts were mainly entrained in the outer portions of the jet and convecting regions of a sustained, Plinian-type, eruption column, as well as in occasional lateral blast currents generated at the vent. As a whole, plate pumice clasts in the peripheral portions of the column were transported at lower altitudes and deposited by fallout or partial collapse closer to the vent relative to lensoid ones that dominated in the inner column portions. The plate tube pumice proportion decreased abruptly up to disappearance during the emplacement of the main pyroclastic currents and lithic-rich breccias related to extensive caldera collapse at the eruption climax, as a consequence of an overall widening of the magma feeder system through the opening of multiple conduits and eruptive vents, along with fissure erosion, concomitant to the disruption of the collapsing block.

The explosive rhyolitic eruption of Oraefajokull volcano, Iceland, in AD 1362 is described and interpreted based on the sequence of pyroclastic fall and flow deposits at 10 proximal locations around the south side of the volcano. Oraefajokull is an ice-clad stratovolcano in south central Iceland which has an ice-filled caldera (4–5 km diameter) of uncertain origin. The main phase of the eruption took place over a few days in June and proceeded in three main phases that produced widely dispersed fallout deposits and a pyroclastic flow deposit. An initial phase of phreatomagmatic eruptive activity produced a volumetrically minor, coarse ash fall deposit (unit A) with a bi-lobate dispersal. This was followed by a second phreatomagmatic, possibly phreatoplinian, phase that deposited more fine ash beds (unit B), dispersed to the SSE. Phases A and B were followed by an intense, climactic Plinian phase that lasted ∼ 8–12 h and produced unit C, a coarse-lapilli, pumice-clast-dominated fall deposit in the proximal region. At the end of Plinian activity, pyroclastic flows formed a poorly-sorted deposit, unit D, presently of very limited thickness and exposed distribution. Much of Eastern Iceland is covered with a very fine distal ash layer, dispersed to the NE. This was probably deposited from an umbrella cloud and is the distal representation of the Plinian fallout. A total bulk fall deposit volume of ∼ 2.3 km3 is calculated (∼ 1.2 km3 DRE). Pyroclastic flow deposit volumes have been crudely estimated to be

The summit cone of the Erebus volcano contains two craters. The Main crater is roughly circular (∼ 500 m diameter) and contains an active persistent phonolite lava lake ∼ 200 m below the summit rim. The Side Crater is adjacent to the southwestern rim of the Main Crater. It is a smaller spoon-shaped Crater (250–350 m diameter, 50–100 m deep) and is inactive. The floor of the Side Crater is covered by snow/ice, volcanic colluvium or weakly developed volcanic soil in geothermal areas (a.k.a. warm ground). But in several places the walls of the Side Crater provide extensive vertical exposure of rock which offers an insight into the recent eruptive history of Erebus. The deposits consist of lava flows with subordinate volcanoclastic lithologies. Four lithostratigraphic units are described: SC 1 is a compound lava with complex internal flow fabrics; SC 2 consists of interbedded vitric lavas, autoclastic and pyroclastic breccias; SC 3 is a thick sequence of thin lavas with minor autoclastic breccias; SC 4 is a pyroclastic fall deposit containing large scoriaceous lava bombs in a matrix composed primarily of juvenile lapilli-sized pyroclasts. Ash-sized pyroclasts from SC 4 consist of two morphologic types, spongy and blocky, indicating a mixed strombolian-phreatomagmatic origin. All of the deposits are phonolitic and contain anorthoclase feldspar. The stratigraphy and morphology of the Side Crater provides a record of recent volcanic activity at the Erebus volcano and is divided into four stages. Stage I is the building of the main summit cone and eruption of lavas (SC 1 and SC 3) from Main Crater vent(s). A secondary cone was built during Stage II by effusive and explosive activity (SC 2) from the Side Crater vent. A mixed strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruption (SC 4) delimits Stage III. The final stage (IV) represents a period of erosion and enlargement of the Side Crater.

Monogenetic basaltic volcanoes are the most common volcanic landforms on the continents. They encompass a range of morphologies from small pyroclastic constructs to larger shields and reflect a wide range of eruptive processes. This paper reviews physical volcanological aspects of continental basaltic eruptions that are driven primarily by magmatic volatiles. Explosive eruption styles include Hawaiian and Strombolian (sensu stricto) and violent Strombolian end members, and a full spectrum of styles that are transitional between these end members. The end-member explosive styles generate characteristic facies within the resulting pyroclastic constructs (proximal) and beyond in tephra fall deposits (medial to distal). Explosive and effusive behavior can be simultaneous from the same conduit system and is a complex function of composition, ascent rate, degassing, and multiphase processes. Lavas are produced by direct effusion from central vents and fissures or from breakouts (boccas, located along cone slopes or at the base of a cone or rampart) that are controlled by varying combinations of cone structure, feeder dike processes, local effusion rate and topography. Clastogenic lavas are also produced by rapid accumulation of hot material from a pyroclastic column, or by more gradual welding and collapse of a pyroclastic edifice shortly after eruptions. Lava flows interact with — and counteract — cone building through the process of rafting. Eruption processes are closely coupled to shallow magma ascent dynamics, which in turn are variably controlled by pre-existing structures and interaction of the rising magmatic mixture with wall rocks. Locations and length scales of shallow intrusive features can be related to deeper length scales within the magma source zone in the mantle. Coupling between tectonic forces, magma mass flux, and heat flow range from weak (low magma flux basaltic fields) to sufficiently strong that some basaltic fields produce polygenetic composite volcanoes with more evolved compositions. Throughout the paper we identify key problems where additional research will help to advance our overall understanding of this important type of volcanism.

El Chichon volcano consists of a 2-km wide Somma crater compound cone 0.2 Ma old with peripheral domes with a central crater reactivated several times during the Holocene. The most recent eruption at El Chichon occurred from March 28 to April 4, 1982, resulting in the worst volcanic disaster during historical times in Mexico, killing more than 2000 people and destroying nine towns and small communities. The volcanic hazard map of El Chichon is based on detailed field work that documented twelve eruptions during the last 8000 years, and computer simulations. To validate the results, computer simulations were first performed over pre-1982 topography mimicking the extent of the actual deposits produced and afterwards run over post-1982 topography. These eruptions have produced pyroclastic fall, surge, flow and lahar deposits. Pyroclastic flows have different volumes and Heim coefficients varying from 0.2 (pumice flows), to 0.15 (block-and-ash flows) and 0.10 (ash flows). Simulations using FLOW3D and TITAN2D indicate that pumice flows and block-and-ash flows can fill the moat area and follow main ravines up to distances of ca. 3 km from the crater, with no effect on populations around the volcano. On the other hand, more mobile ash flows related to column-collapse events can reach up to 4 km from the vent, but will always follow the same paths and still not affect surrounding populations. The energy-cone model was used to simulate the outflow of pyroclastic surges based on the 1982 event ( H / L = 0.1 and 0.2), and shows that surges may reach some towns around the volcano. Explosive activity also produced Plinian columns higher than 27 km that were dispersed towards the NE by prevailing winds. Future fallout will seriously disturb the lives of more than 70,000 inhabitants of cities and towns located in a radius of 35 km from the volcano. Lahar events in the past originated from unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits with volumes varying from 1 to 4 × 10 6 m 3 for single pulses, to a large one from dam-breakout with a volume of 40 × 10 6 m 3 . We used the LAHARZ code to model future events with volumes of 1, 2, and 3 × 10 6 m 3 that will reach as far as 10, 14, and 16 km from the crater, posing some danger to the communities of Nicapa, Volcan, and Ostuacan, even some time after the climax of the eruption.

A structurally complex succession of basaltic pyroclastic deposits produced from overlapping phreatomagmatic volcanoes occurs within Upper Cretaceous floodplain deposits in the Aguja Formation in Big Bend National Park, West Texas. Together with similar basaltic deposits recently documented elsewhere in the Aguja Formation, these rocks provide evidence for an episode of phreatomagmatic volcanism that predates onset of arc magmatism in the region in the Paleogene. At Pena Mountain, the pyroclastic deposits are ≥ 70 m thick and consist dominantly of tabular beds of lapillistone and lapilli tuff containing angular to fluidal pyroclasts of altered sideromelane intermixed with abundant accidental terrigenous detritus derived from underlying Aguja sediments. Tephra characteristics indicate derivation from phreatomagmatic explosions involving fine-scale interaction between magma and sediment in the shallow subsurface. Deposition occurred by pyroclastic fall and base-surge processes in near-vent settings; most base-surge deposits lack tractional sedimentary structures and are inferred to have formed by suspension sedimentation from rapidly decelerating surges. Complexly deformed pyroclastic strata beneath a distinct truncation surface within the succession record construction and collapse of an initial volcano, followed by a shift in the location of the conduit and excavation of another maar crater into Aguja strata nearby. Preserved portions of the margin of this second crater are defined by a zone of intense soft-sediment disruption of pyroclastic and nonvolcanic strata. U–Pb isotopic analyses of zircon grains from three basaltic bombs in the succession reveal the presence of abundant xenocrysts, in some cases with ages > 1.0 Ga. The youngest concordant analyses for all three samples yield a weighted mean age of 76.9 ± 1.2 Ma, consistent with the presence of Late Campanian vertebrate fossils in the upper Aguja Formation. We infer that the volcanism is related to the intraplate Balcones igneous province, which was emplaced in the same time frame in a marine setting farther east.