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Members of the genus Torradovirus (family Secoviridae, type species Tomato torrado virus, ToTV) are spherical plant viruses transmitted by the whitefly species Trialeurodes vaporariorum and Bemisia tabaci. Knowledge on the mode of vector transmission is lacking for torradoviruses. Here, the mode of transmission was determined for Tomato marchitez virus (ToMarV). A minimal acquisition access period (AAP) and inoculation access period (IAP) of approximately 2h each was required for its transmission by T. vaporariorum, while optimal transmission required an AAP and IAP of at least 16h and 8h, respectively. Whiteflies could retain the virus under non-feeding conditions for at least 8h without loss of transmission efficiency, but upon feeding on a non-host plant in between the AAP and IAP they retained the virus for no more than 8h. Similar conditions supported transmission of isolates of ToTV and Tomato chocolàte virus (ToChV) by T. vaporariorum and B. tabaci. Additionally, similar experiments revealed the banded-winged whitefly (Trialeurodes abutilonea) as a vector for all three virus species. The results are congruent with acquisition and retention periods for semi-persistent virus transmission. RT-PCR detection analysis of ToTV and ToMarV in the vector's body revealed their presence in the stylet, but not in the head where the pharynx of the foregut is located. The results altogether indicate a semi-persistent stylet-borne mode of vector transmission for torradoviruses. Additionally, this is the first group of spherical viruses transmitted by at least three different species of whiteflies.

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is a serious pest of vegetable, ornamental, and agronomic crops throughout the world. To control B. tabaci, Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich, and Eretmocerus mundus Mercet are considered the most effective parasitoids in dry tropical regions. In parasitoids, choosing the `right` hosts has direct consequences for their reproductive success and efficiency as biocontrol agent. Therefore, being able to discriminate a parasitized host from an unparasitized one would be important to prevent wasting time, eggs, and to reduce the mortality risk for their offspring. We evaluated intra- and interspecific host discrimination and the chance of super-parasitism or multi-parasitism in two populations of E. mundus (sexual and asexual) and E. eremicus. Different combinations and sequences of female introduction were carried out for the various populations and species. Experienced females avoided super-parasitism. However, naïve females did lay eggs under hosts that were previously parasitized by conspecific females. E. eremicus females avoided to multi-parasitize hosts parasitized by E. mundus. However, E. mundus females did multi-parasitize the hosts that had been parasitized earlier by E. eremicus. In the case of super-parasitism, the outcome showed that neither of the E. mundus populations was stronger, whereas in the case of multi-parasitism E. mundus appeared stronger than E. eremicus. Since those populations and species are morphologically similar a molecular method had to be developed to identify the outcome of super- or multi-parasitism, which is presented in Appendix A.